In 1972, for example, nearly 140 ministries on either 

 an all-union or union republic level had under their 

 jurisdiction R&D establishments. *■ This fragmented 

 administrative structure, in turn, influences — if not 

 dictates — the fundamentally bureaucratic character of 

 science policy making and implementation. Adhering to 

 the principle that "science cannot be administered 

 exclusively from a single center," Kremlin authori- 

 ties emphasize the joint realization of planning and 

 management functions. 2 That is, the basic modus ope- 

 randi in Soviet R&D revolves around joint decision 

 making, power sharing, and cooperative actions in a 

 multi-organizational context. 



To a large extent, the overall structure itself 

 generates certain "pluralist" forces and tendencies 

 in Soviet R&D. Though admittedly of a different kind 

 and degree than in America, organizational pluralism 

 exists and exerts substantial influence on the policy 

 process. The research-to-production cycle must pass 

 through a variety of decision paths and clearance 

 points. Disagreements and delays over choices and 

 strategies occur at every turn. Cooperation is 

 achieved and maintained with great difficulty. Noth- 

 ing works smoothly. Given this context, a heavy 

 burden falls particularly on those agencies responsi- 

 ble for coordinating R&D. As the principal referees 

 and synthesizers, they are the ones who must develop 

 and display effective managerial abilities in balanc- 

 ing mixed coalitions of opinion, criticism, and advo- 

 cacy in the pursuit of national goals. 



While these behavioral features of Soviet R&D 

 planning and management are treated in more detail 

 in subsequent chapters, we mention them here because 

 they are largely rooted in and shaped by organiza- 

 tional factors. Moreover, structure per se is inher- 

 ently static. In any brief description of formal in- 

 frastructure it is easy to lose sight of the organi- 

 zational dynamics around which the whole machinery 

 turns. 



It is also important to note that the Soviet S&T 

 establishment has evolved over several decades. There 



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