ed automatic increases in the number of scientific 

 workers and support staff. Only recently have they 

 become aware that expanding the size of the work 

 force may actually lead to a decline in productivity, 

 to a lengthening of the decision process, and to in- 

 creases in cost.-^ There has been a universal depre- 

 ciation of organizational and managerial factors in 

 research, development, and innovation in the USSR. 

 "Paradoxical as it may seem," a group of science ana- 

 lysts in Novosibirsk observed in 1971, "in our coun- 

 try science is probably the only sphere of human ac- 

 tivity for which economists, planners, supply person- 

 nel, etc. are not specially trained. For all these 

 persons there are not even special courses to retrain 

 them for working in scientific institutions or to im- 

 prove their qualifications."-*- 5 



Finally, the spatial distribution of R&D estab- 

 lishments is an issue. This decision has generally 

 been left to middle management organs, such as the 

 Academy presidium and ministry collegia. Important 

 considerations included historical precedent (e.g., 

 an initial R&D base dating from the Tsarist era) , 

 proximity to ministry main administrations, proximity 

 to educational facilities, proximity to the industri- 

 al facilities of the ministry, and the general ameni- 

 ties of the locale. As a consequence, Leningrad and 

 Moscow became science centers, but the benefits of 

 geographic colocation between facilities of several 

 hierarchies were realized only when the decisions of 

 their independent management bodies happened to co- 

 incide. Recently, however, the Soviets have come to 

 appreciate the value of the 



'research complex 1 as an innovation-promoting 

 organizational device. A research complex is 

 a cluster of research institutes specialized 

 in different fields and working closely with 

 neighboring enterprises. The variety of spe- 

 cializations facilitates the interdisciplinary 

 cooperation often required in applied work, 

 and the close association with neighboring in- 

 dustrial enterprises makes for greater ease in 

 prototype construction, testing, and innovation. 



183 



