are managed and coordinated centrally, befit the gen- 

 eral pattern of Soviet communications. 



Since the late 1960s Kremlin authorities have 

 shifted from passive mechanisms to more active strat- 

 egies of technology transfer to enhance industrial 

 research utilization. Adopting a process view of in- 

 novation, they have established new institutional ar- 

 rangements and organizational forms that seek to span 

 and integrate the multiple participants and stages in 

 the innovation cycle. The development of research 

 complexes along the lines of some American industrial 

 research parks has been emphasized in the belief that 

 the desired benefits of cross-fertilization, sharing 

 of facilities and interdisciplinary cooperation are 

 better achieved through such close association. Dif- 

 ferent types of research complexes have evolved, in- 

 cluding (1) formal incorporation of research, design, 

 and production facilities in single organizations, 

 such as the production and science-production asso- 

 ciations, and (2) more recently, geographic colloca- 

 tion of R&D facilities. The creation of special or- 

 ganizations concerned with the introduction of new 

 technology is less well advanced. Forms of project 

 management and matrix organization used in American 

 R&D are, however, being modified and tried in the So- 

 viet context. 



SELECTION OF S&T GOALS 

 AND EVALUATION OF RESULTS 



In the United States major goals (problems) need- 

 ing S&T solutions are selected not as a formal plan- 

 ning activity but through a complex political-economic 

 process that is not well understood or economically 

 efficient. No formal procedure or time schedule 

 exists for such selection, no one body to establish 

 goals and to measure results. Both the Executive and 

 Legislative branches have identified such major goals 

 as space exploration, cancer research, improved envi- 

 ronmental protection, and energy research and devel- 



311 



