are predicated upon successful innovation, such as 

 the assimilation of a new process which economizes on 

 inputs. In other words, meeting production targets 

 may require that an innovation be completed. Accord- 

 ingly, it is expected — though not always realized — 

 that targets for R&D and especially innovation be for- 

 mulated in advance of production targets. 



Specific procedures in different administrative 

 hierarchies vary as a function of the orientation of 

 the hierarchy and the nature of R&D activity. In the 

 Academy of Sciences, for example, R&D is the central 

 activity, and the uncertainty of fundamental research 

 renders it difficult to formulate "hard" target indi- 

 cators and thereby places a premium on expert consul- 

 tation and evaluation. Also because of the long-term 

 nature of basic research, five-year plan assignments 

 for fundamental research in the natural and social 

 sciences, though they do specify projected results, 

 performers, and schedules, are not formally elaborat- 

 ed into annual components; and they are treated more 

 as recommendations than as requirements.^" In gener- 

 al, basic research is planned as part of the formula- 

 tion of long-term trends and forecasts. The Academy 

 of Sciences has also been delegated responsibility 

 for its own planning. Not surprisingly, this tends 

 to be much less bureaucratically oriented than in the 

 branch ministries. There is broad participation 

 through an elaborate network of consultative and eval- 

 uative councils throughout the Academy structure. 



Indeed, the contrast in the roles of the various 

 scientific problem councils of the Academy and the 

 official planning agencies is worthy of emphasis and 

 elaboration. The councils are consultative bodies 

 composed of leading experts in different fields of 

 science and technology. They have no formal adminis- 

 trative authority and their roles are somewhat ill- 

 defined, yet they frequently exert considerable in- 

 fluence over the course of research. They not only 

 examine general themes of research, but they may also 

 recommend divisions of assignments among institutes 

 and departments of institutions. The councils care- 

 fully review draft plans and suggest changes. Con- 



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