consumes as much time as the research and development 

 process itself. Even excellent ideas must stand in 

 line to be included in the work plan of the organiza- 

 tion designated to conduct the next phase of the pro- 

 cess. Such ideas, too, sometimes fail to pass the 

 approval stage. Among the nearly 700 completed R&D 

 projects proposed by the Siberian Division of the 

 USSR Academy of Sciences for practical use between 

 1960 and 1970 but were not introduced, about 40 per- 

 cent had become obsolete while waiting for higher ap- 

 proval." 



Second, the quality of decision making is reduced 

 because the structure forces decisions to the highest 

 levels away from the information and knowledge that 

 are most relevant to deal with them. Each additional 

 level distorts objectives and misdirects attention. 

 The vision of individuals and managerial units is di- 

 rected toward separate efforts rather than the over- 

 all enterprise, results, and performance. Structure 

 and procedure also tend to focus attention on wrong 

 issues, such as jurisdictional disputes, formal plan 

 fulfillment, and the avoidance of risk. All along 

 the line there is constant danger a project will lose 

 momentum and fall into incompetent or unsympathetic 

 hands. 



These obstacles assume special importance in the 

 branch ministries where the managers are appreciably 

 less qualified than in the Academy system. Scientists 

 themselves manage academic science, and it is not 

 nearly as fragmented and hampered by departmental 

 limitations as branch science. R&D in the ministries, 

 on the contrary, is directed by people who are not 

 scientists. "They themselves do not perform scien- 

 tific research, and many of them have only a vague 

 notion of how it is conducted. "7 To be sure, scien- 

 tific and managerial competence varies across minis- 

 terial lines. In the defense-related sectors, such 

 as the machine-tool and instrument-making, radio, and 

 electrical equipment industries, R&D management is 

 qualified, experienced, and forceful. It is much 

 less so in long neglected areas like light industry, 

 consumer goods, and local services. Here sometimes 



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