ican pluralistic setting when government policy im- 

 pacts on thousands of semi- independent private deci- 

 sion makers. Rather, the transition in the Soviet 

 Union from central policy to individual decisions 

 follows a continuum. 



Given the particular shape and ethos of the system 

 the claim is frequently made in Moscow that Kremlin 

 leaders are able to pursue a comprehensive and coher- 

 ent national science and technology policy, and this 

 is the image of Soviet policy that generally exists 

 abroad. It contrasts sharply with the situation in 

 the United States where there is no formal, broadly 

 based, and unified policy for R&D (especially outside 

 of defense and space) but rather a confusing mixture 

 of policies, a diffusion of responsibility, and a 

 fragmentation of administration. 



At the outset, however, it is important to empha- 

 size that this popular Western image of a tightly 

 centralized and coordinated Soviet S&T effort has 

 never corresponded with reality. Central planning 

 and management of R&D is still highly imperfect. S&T 

 planning has always been much more rudimentary than 

 economic planning. Although much more centralized 

 and comprehensive than the American system, the So- 

 viet approach is far from the holistic model that it 

 is sometimes portrayed to be. The Kremlin's reach in 

 science policy continues to exceed its grasp. Aspira- 

 tions outdistance capabilities. There are still many 

 holes in the whole. The interplay of multiple agen- 

 cies with diverse perspectives, different wills, and 

 competing interests continues to constrain the ac- 

 tions and to limit the capabilities of central auth- 

 orities to formulate and implement coherent policies 

 in science and technology. 



To be sure, the idea of central planning of sci- 

 ence was established early in the life of the Soviet 

 regime. Centralization of R&D was regarded not only 

 as a means of eliminating the duplication of effort 

 and secrecy that were characteristic of capitalist 

 states but also of making the most effective use of 

 Russia's scarce S&T resources. Tradition as well as 



