a simple listing of projects to be carried 

 out without relating them to broader pur- 

 poses. In large part the projects are sug- 

 gested by lower units in the planning chain 

 and reflect the interests and expertise of 

 performing organizations. Many such pro- 

 jects are reported to be trivial and mar- 

 ginal in their technological benefits. The 

 proposals submitted by lower echelons are 

 not always properly screened and those ac- 

 cepted are not worked into coherent plans 

 consistent with the general technological 

 directions of the higher planning echelons. 

 In other words, RDI plans tend to be accu- 

 mulations rather than syntheses. 137 



The demand for techniques to view projects in a 

 total systems perspective is clearly felt and pro- 

 vides the impetus behind the systems movement in So- 

 viet science policy today. Network planning and pro- 

 gramming methods enable decision makers to perceive 

 projects more broadly as systems and to depict the 

 interrelationships among tasks to be performed. In 

 general, though, these are still new and untested 

 tools. "Many deficiencies in planning scientific 

 and technical progress," explains one Soviet science 

 policy expert, "are rooted in the lack of apprecia- 

 tion of programming methods and in the narrow front 

 of their application. "138 Even for basic S&T prob- 

 lems, systems planning is still very much an evolv- 

 ing technique. A deputy director and research ana- 

 lyst at Gosplan's Central Scientific Research Insti- 

 tute of Economics acknowledge, "We have still not ac- 

 cumulated sufficient experience in drawing up long- 

 term S&T programs. It is possible to say that the 

 formulation of programs in most cases is still in the 

 formative stage. "139 On the branch level, too, prog- 

 ress has been slow and limited in developing program- 

 type planning. By 1974 only three ministries had 

 transferred to the system of continuous planning, 

 though by 1978 this number had climbed to 11. The 

 rest continue to plan R&D largely around separate 

 organizations rather than broad programs. 



160 



