Finally, integration of plans and programs is im- 

 peded by limitations and gaps in the analytical base 

 underpinning science policy. To be sure, some prog- 

 ress has been made over the past decade in both re- 

 fining and broadening the criteria for deciding prob- 

 lems of choice. Awareness of the parameters of "time" 

 and "cost" has particularly increased in R&D decision 

 making. The principle of "better late than never," 

 which prevailed largely in the past, is being replaced 

 by "either on time or not at all" as the issue of ob- 

 solescence becomes increasingly important. At the 

 same time, technical progress "at any price" is being 

 questioned and rejected, at least in some science 

 policy circles, as the squeeze on resources grows. 

 More and more, available means determine possible 

 goals; alternative futures have to be weighed in 

 terms of their comparative costs and benefits. In 

 addition to the economic dimensions of cost, the so- 

 cial and ecological ramifications of technological 

 undertakings are beginning to be weighed in the de- 

 cision calculus. More scientific forecasting and 

 long-range strategic planning are perceived as imper- 

 ative. Much as in the West, the whole thrust of re- 

 cent Soviet planning, forecasting, and goal-setting 

 in the area of science and technology is to reduce 

 uncertainty, to anticipate contingency, and to pro- 

 vide a greater sense of purpose and direction. 



The growing complexity of contemporary problems in 

 science, technology, and production has exposed the 

 inadequacy of traditional planning methods and eval- 

 uative indicators. Today the articles manufactured 

 by any branch are so diverse and the technologies 

 for their production so numerous that evaluating the 

 activity of a modern enterprise according to prevail- 

 ing gross output and simple aggregate indices is 

 "like judging a painting by the weight of the paint 

 used or the area of the canvas it covers," noted a 

 recent article in Pravda.1^3 ^,t t h e same time, the 

 inadequacy of technique applies to the new methods 

 of planning as well as to the old. The former are 

 still in the process of evolution as the search con- 

 tinues for more sophisticated ways to integrate com- 

 plexity and to respond to the new claims of efficien- 



162 



