terbranch projects are the so-called "Sputnik" and 

 "Skalar" systems. In addition to evaluating time 

 and cost elements, network methods are also improv- 

 ing handling of materials and technical supplies and 

 allocating manpower in R&D organizations. On the 

 whole, however, their application remains limited; 

 they are still largely confined to the major scien- 

 tific centers, notably Moscow, Leningrad, Kiev, and 

 Novosibirsk, and to major large-scale projects. 20 

 Such planning and control techniques, it may be no- 

 ted, are compatible with the Soviet predilection for 

 structured, planned activities. Their development 

 and application to date have been constrained, in 

 large part, by structural factors and the organiza- 

 tional-managerial fragmentation of the innovation 

 cycle. 



Other features of program control in the Soviet 

 performer establishment center on the creation of the 

 optimal internal organizational structure for support 

 of R&D. As previously indicated, much interest has 

 been expressed in the development of "organic" links 

 between R&D and production, the topic of the next 

 section. But even within the independent R&D estab- 

 lishment, Soviet authorities have found it advanta- 

 geous to associate and link R&D personnel responsible 

 for distinct stages or aspects of a complex project. 

 Two pertinent dimensions may be identified: associa- 

 tion between individuals working on separate stages 

 of product or process development, and association 

 between individuals working at the same stage of, re- 

 spectively, product and process development. The 

 benefits of such close contacts are said to have been 

 instrumental in developing the ceramic tile manufac- 

 turing process. 21 Accordingly, numerous research in- 

 stitutes and design bureaus are expanding direct forms 

 of cooperation and collaboration among the various 

 participants in the research-to-production cycle. 



In addition, some performer establishments have 

 begun to experiment with forms of project management 

 and matrix organization to break down intrainstitu- 

 tional barriers, departmental and functional, and to 



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