Underlying this heavy accent on the systems ap- 

 proach to planning is the need to deal more effec- 

 tively with major interbranch problems that cut 

 across ministerial lines. Brezhnev particularly 

 complained to the 1976 congress about too many 

 "nursemaids," about the fragmentation of decision 

 making and administration, leading to unwarranted 

 cost overruns and protracted delays. "What is re- 

 quired here," he told the congress, "are integrated 

 and centralized programs embracing all stages of 

 work, from project design to practical implementa- 

 tion." Lending his support to the systems movement, 

 the General Secretary charged that "the question of 

 improving the methods of solving major interbranch 

 and territorial problems of state importance cannot 

 be put off."-* M. P. Ring, a prominent science pol- 

 icy expert, also emphasizes that the Soviet govern- 

 ment cannot continue to solve major complex S&T prob- 

 lems incrementally "by pieces," and by means of ter- 

 ritorial and branch planning alone. Such a policy 

 leads to "slow, incomplete, and insufficient solu- 

 tions." 56 



It is important to mention again that, despite the 

 long tradition of central economic planning, Soviet 

 authorities have lacked until relatively recently the 

 necessary organization, techniques, authority, and 

 experience to plan and manage R&D on a comprehensive 

 level. This is particularly true for the civilian 

 sector with the exception of a few crash development 

 and high priority programs, like chemical technology 

 or atomic energy. Planning of R&D has been — and 

 still predominantly is — conducted on an institutional 

 basis. Given the extreme functional specialization 

 of institutional performers and the structural frag- 

 mentation of the innovation process, it has not been 

 possible to plan and manage projects within the 

 framework of one or two organizations. A major aim 

 of the drive to create large research and production 

 complexes is to build an organizational basis for 

 broader program planning. Such structures permit the 

 development and use of more sophisticated techniques 

 of systems management and project control. 



274 



