tions. Supply is generally not a problem. Abundant 

 resources are usually available, given sufficient 

 capital. Rather, attention is directed to the demand 

 side where in the American setting the basic uncer- 

 tainties and risks are lodged. Individual and inst- 

 tutional actors focus on environmental externalities 

 that may stimulate or constrain innovation, especial- 

 ly S&T activities beyond their own in-house efforts 

 that may pose new opportunities or competitive threats, 



Given these divergent orientations, R&D personnel 

 maintain different patterns of communication and in- 

 teraction. In the USSR functional performers tend to 

 be separate from each other organizationally and spa- 

 tially. The predominantly vertical structure of de- 

 cision making inhibits lateral interaction. Working 

 contact between R&D specialists and user or client 

 groups is weak. The later links of the innovation 

 chain — the introduction and debugging of new technol- 

 ogy — are in particular poorly developed. Throughout 

 there is little real interplay, much less team play, 

 to integrate individual efforts. Self-sufficiency 

 rather than cooperation is the goal. 



The accent in American R&D is on direct interaction 

 and interdependence among major performers. Continuing 

 communication among the various participants promotes 

 mutual understanding, trust, and acceptance. Though 

 the "not-invented-here" sentiment exists, it is not 

 so pervasive an attitude as it seems to be in the So- 

 viet system. In the US personnel also move more both 

 within and among the different sectors of academe, 

 industry, and government. Close contact between gen- 

 erators and users of research is another important 

 feature. Industry particularly stresses linkage not 

 just in R&D but also between R&D and manufacturing, 

 marketing, sales, and services. These connections 

 help assure the viability of new products and proces- 

 ses. Some firms organize R&D to involve the user 

 early in the development of innovations and clients 

 also participate at critical points. Good will and 

 good customer relations, it is said, do more for tech- 

 nological utilization than almost anything. 



308 



