Taken together these features point to different 

 approaches to technology transfer. In the USSR com- 

 munication takes primarily the form of the transmis- 

 sion of documents and routing of information through 

 formal administrative channels. The main interactions 

 are between functional performers and higher ministry 

 authorities who serve as administrative gatekeepers 

 at critical transfer points. The whole activity chain 

 moves through different links and stages by hierarchi- 

 cal referral and bureaucratic relay. In general, the 

 research-to-production cycle is not an integrated or 

 integrating process. 



In the American framework emphasis is on person- 

 to-person contact rather than reliance upon printed 

 information and communication through a middleman. 

 Informal and oral sources provide key communications 

 about both needs and technical opportunities. Bridg- 

 ing roles are played by "technological gatekeepers," 

 "market gatekeepers," and "manufacturing gatekeepers," 

 all of whom provide information about environmental 

 conditions that can influence the flow of action. This 

 close linkage allows scientists and engineers to co- 

 operate in shaping technical programs and an informa- 

 tion base. Feedback from the market plays a self- 

 correcting role and keeps R&D responsive to the user. 



This brings us to the question of technology util- 

 ization and delivery mechanisms. These mechanisms 

 differ between the private and government sectors in 

 the US. The federal government, despite its large 

 investment in R&D, does not take an active role in R&D 

 diffusion and has not, with a few notable exceptions, 

 been effective in promoting it. Diffusion is largely 

 the province of the private sector. Most federal 

 agencies do not have explicit policies or special pro- 

 grams for promoting technology transfer. Those that 

 do usually fall short of the utilization stage. Among 

 the mechanisms used by federal agencies the most com- 

 mon and expensive are the S&T information dissemina- 

 tion services. They are also judged to have the low- 

 est impact, reflecting the general ineffectiveness of 

 written communication as a means of technology trans- 

 fer in the American setting. The most successful ap- 



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