and can result in increased predation and mortality. In addition, adult females are discouraged 

 from nesting in highly developed areas with intense artificial lighting. 



Erosion of nesting beaches can result in loss of nesting habitat. However, natural processes of 

 beach erosion are not generally a significant threat. 



Beach armoring (seawalls, revetments, riprap, sandbags, and sand fences) to protect property 

 from erosion can cause the loss of dry nesting beach and/or interference with access to suitable 

 nesting sites. 



Beach nourishment results in heavy machinery, pipelines, increased human activity, and artificial 

 lighting on a project beach, and can cause the burial of nests and disturbance of nesting turtles. 



Repeated mechanical raking of nesting beaches by heavy machinery can result in compacting 

 sand and cause tire ruts which may hinder or trap hatchlings. Rakes can penetrate the surface 

 and disturb or uncover a nest. Disposing of the raked debris on the high beach can cover nests 

 and may alter nest temperature affecting temperature dependent se.x determination mechanisms. 



Human disturbance of nesting females is a serious concern. Also, heavy utilization of nesting 

 beaches by humans may result in lowered hatchling success due to sand" compaction. 



The placement of physical obstacles on a beach can hamper or deter nesting attempts as well as 

 interfere with the incubation of eggs and the emergence of hatchlings. 



The use of off-road vehicles on beaches is a serious problem in certain areas. It may result in 

 decreased hatchling success due to sand compaction, or directly kill hatchlings and adults. Tire 

 ruts may also interfere with the ability of hatchlings to get to the ocean. 



The invasion of nesting sites by non-native beach vegetation can lead to increased erosion and 

 degradation of nesting habitat. Trees shading a beach can also change nest temperatures, altering 

 the natural sex ratio of the hatchlings. 



Impacts in the marine environment 



Commercial fishing: It is estimated that before the implementation of turtle excluder device 

 (TED) requirements, the commercial shrimp fleet captured approximately 925 green turtles each 

 year; approximately 225 of those captures were fatal. With TED regulations in place and based 

 on current observer coverage, the lethal and nonlethal take of green turtles in shrimp trawlers is 

 now estimated to be 200 turtles per year. Most turtles killed are juveniles and sub-adults. 

 Bluefish, croaker and flounder trawl fishing are also serious threats. Turtles are taken by purse 

 seine fisheries in the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico, but the magnitude of take is currently not 

 known. Several thousand commercial vessels and an extensive recreational fishery are involved 

 in hook and line fishing for various coastal species. The capture of turtles in this fishery is 

 common, but the number is not known. 



Significant numbers of green turtles were killed by gill and trammel net fisheries off the eastern 

 coast of central Florida. However, in 1995, gill and trammel net fisheries were banned from 

 operating in Florida state waters. Pound net fisheries are primarily a problem in waters off 

 Virginia, where turtles become entangled in the gear and drown. In North Carolina, live turtles 

 are often released from pound nets. Green turtles are incidentally taken by the U.S. pelagic 

 longline fisheries in the Western North Atlantic, Eastern Pacific, and Hawaii when they are 

 hooked and/or become entangled with the mainline or buoy line. The estimated annual take by 



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