Functional Area Problems. Opportunities, and Constraints 39 



many years, even though they may already have been 

 initiated or are well into the planning or development 

 stages. 



SPACE TECHNOLOGY AND SPACE SCIENCE 



The U.S. space program of the 1960s concentrated on 

 developing the technologies of propulsion, power, struc- 

 tures, controls, and electronics systems needed for space 

 operations and on proving that space flight was not only 

 technologically feasible, but also potentially very useful. 

 The decade of the 1970s was a period of consolidation, 

 initial development of a reusable space transportation 

 system, and assessment of the most fruitful directions to 

 pursue in space science, research, and applications. The 

 directions selected supported application of space ca- 

 pabilities to the solution of terrestrial problems, and ex- 

 ploitation of the space environment for scientific pur- 

 poses. Missions were continued and plans for future 

 missions were initiated to exploit the unique capabilities 

 of space systems to increase and deepen our understand- 

 ing of the universe (NRC-9; SPACE). 



Space activities in the 1980s are expected to be more 

 international in character, more sophisticated in technol- 

 ogy, and richer in their contribution to scientific knowl- 

 edge. Results are expected that will be potentially valu- 

 able for commercial, civil, and military applications. 

 Efforts will also be made to involve the private sector 

 more in the support of U.S. space programs that could 

 provide long-range commercial benefits. The communi- 

 cations industry has already made considerable commit- 

 ments to space, and the promise of the unique environ- 

 ment it offers for certain manufacturing processes has 

 received considerable attention. However, because it is 

 often impossible to project accurately the benefits from a 

 specific program, because space programs require such 

 long leadtimes before benefits from investments are real- 

 ized, and because benefits would likely be widely dis- 

 persed rather than centered in specific businesses, private 

 enterprise has understandably not been inclined toward 

 financial support of many major space programs. The 

 private sector might be more willing to commit additional 

 speculative funds to space programs if the payback period 

 were shorter and profits guaranteed, and if it were more 

 closely involved in long-range planning and could there- 

 fore influence directions of space programs to fulfill its 

 future commercial needs. Therefore, for the near future, 

 the Federal Government will remain the primary sponsor 

 of the U.S. space R&D effort (SPACE). 



One area of space activity in which the United States 

 currently holds undisputed world leadership is space sci- 

 ence. That area includes both interplanetary explorations 

 and astronomical observations from orbiting satellites. 

 Space exploration has paid huge dividends in other 

 spheres by advancing technology for electronics in gener- 



al, computer technology in particular, and many other 

 scientific and technical areas. It has added significantly to 

 knowledge about the universe and about how Earth and its 

 inhabitants fit into the universe. Given that knowledge and 

 the new capabilities provided by the Space Shuttle and the 

 planned Space Telescope, this Nation is in a position to do 

 even better work in the space sciences in the coming years 

 (NRC-9; NRC-17; SPACE). 



Investigation of the origin and evolution of the universe 

 falls into four space science subcategories: astrophysics, 

 solar-terrestrial physics, planetary research, and the life 

 sciences (SPACE). Space science encompasses Earth, the 

 solar system, our galaxy, and the entire universe. Its 

 activities can provide information about the emergence of 

 life on Earth and can investigate the possibility that life 

 may exist elsewhere in the universe. It requires study of an 

 incredibly diverse group of objects, such as diffuse clouds 

 of gas and dust, stars and their systems of planets, comets, 

 asteroids, pulsars, and quasars. And, until onsite meas- 

 urements can be made, it must take into consideration 

 radiation in all the frequency regions from visible light to 

 cosmic rays. Detailed discussions of recent advances and 

 promising opportunities in space science appear in the 

 Source Volumes (NRC-9; NRC-17; SPACE). 



It is worth noting, however, that although almost limit- 

 less opportunities exist for furthering our knowledge of 

 the nature of the universe and our place in it, resource 

 constraints will continue to require that explicit priorities 

 be set. Scientific opportunities associated with a particu- 

 lar type of project must be balanced against opportunities 

 lost by foregoing another project. As in other parts of the 

 space program, selection of priorities cannot be made 

 solely on the basis of what can be done or what, from a 

 scientific perspective, should be done. There is no ques- 

 tion that the human race will continue to explore the 

 universe or that the United States will continue to be 

 deeply involved in doing so. The important question, as 

 already noted in a more general context, is: What specific 

 opportunities ought to be seized and when? 



THE SPACE TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 



The first successful orbital tests of the Space Shuttle in 

 April 1981 launched a new era of U.S. space capability. 

 The Shuttle Orbiter. which is the basic element of the 

 Space Transportation System, is not only a reusable 

 launch and reentry vehicle, but also a short-term, low- 

 Earth-orbit space platform. Although the precise long- 

 term launch rate to accommodate many of the potential 

 payloads for the complete Space Transportation System 

 continues to evolve, the Shuttle is now heavily booked for 

 its early years of operation. Organizations already com- 

 mitted to its use include the National Aeronautics and 

 Space Administration (NASA), the Department of De- 

 fense (DOD), other agencies of the U.S. Government, 



