in diversity, are strongly influenced 

 by stresses imposed by the physical 

 environment. Complex communities, 

 high in diversity, tend to be more 

 stable and integrated. It should be 

 easier to predict change in the sim- 

 pler, physically controlled communi- 

 ties than in the complex, biologically 

 controlled associations. 



Marine communities in shallow 

 water appear to be simpler than those 

 in deep-sea and terrestrial environ- 

 ments. Therefore, the planktonic and 

 benthic marine communities in shal- 

 low water offer the greatest oppor- 

 tunities to test hypotheses concern- 

 ing succession and the relationship 

 between environmental stability and 

 diversity. This is fortunate, since 

 these communities are of great eco- 

 nomic importance and yet suffer the 

 greatest exposure to artificial disturb- 

 ances. If we can perfect methods of 

 prediction in shallow-water commu- 

 nities in the next several years, there 

 will still be time to develop the 

 economic and political institutions 

 needed to prevent the wholesale de- 

 gradation of these important eco- 

 systems. 



Needed Scientific Activity 



In the next several years we will 

 need to perform field and laboratory 

 experiments explicitly designed to 

 test the growing body of ecological 

 theory. For the purpose of develop- 

 ing our prediction capability, we 

 should perform such experiments in 

 areas that are undergoing or about to 

 undergo artificial stress. 



Ecological surveys are now com- 

 monly made in connection with pro- 



posed reactor installations or sewage 

 outfalls. While such studies vary 

 tremendously in quality, most are 

 worthless. Most are poorly designed 

 without any regard to previous ex- 

 perience or theory. It is not possible 

 to generalize from the data obtained 

 from most of these surveys because 

 of the great differences in the meth- 

 ods of sampling and analysis used. 

 One of the most pressing needs in 

 applied marine ecology is the devel- 

 opment of high and uniform stand- 

 ards for the performance of routine 

 ecological surveys. 



Monitoring — At the state and na- 

 tional level, it would be highly de- 

 sirable to develop programs to moni- 

 tor environmental events. We could 

 maximize the use of data obtained 

 from the study of artificial disasters 

 if such studies were performed by 

 highly trained teams of observers. 

 High school and college biology 

 teachers might be enlisted in this 

 effort. It would not be difficult to 

 cover the coastlines of highly popu- 

 lated areas such as California. Cen- 

 ters for environmental control could 

 be established to train teams of ob- 

 servers, to develop standards of per- 

 formance, and to collate and analyze 

 data. Such data would be of immeas- 

 urable value in designing basic re- 

 search programs and in developing 

 environmental controls. 



Research and Training — On a 

 long-term basis, we must continue to 

 support basic research in population 

 dynamics. In shallow-water commu- 

 nities there is a particular need to 

 place more emphasis on larval re- 

 cruitment. Our understanding of the 

 temporal changes in benthic marine 

 communities is severely limited by 



riONSHIPS 



our lack of knowledge 

 ecology. 



It is essential to expand research 

 and training in systematic biology. 

 Systematics remains as the founda- 

 tion of nearly all ecological research. 

 Yet our attempts to attract talent and 

 support in these areas are feeble. 

 The major museums of this country 

 should be the focal points of this 

 effort, but they are suffering decay 

 and neglect. 



Scientific Preserves — In the long 

 term, it is important to establish large 

 scientific preserves to serve as stand- 

 ards of environmental quality, as 

 natural laboratories, and as sources 

 of larvae for the maintenance of 

 species elsewhere. We must begin 

 this program as soon as possible, for 

 few areas remain suitable for these 

 purposes along our coasts. 



In conclusion, there is reason to 

 believe that we will have a limited 

 capability of predicting changes in 

 natural communities within the com- 

 ing decade. This capability will be 

 greatly expanded by the rapid devel- 

 opment of ecological theory and the 

 performance of critical experiments 

 in natural communities. To achieve 

 these goals, we should increase basic 

 research in systematic biology and 

 population dynamics, establish scien- 

 tific preserves, and develop programs 

 to monitor environmental events. If 

 we begin now, we may be able to 

 halt the degradation of the marine 

 environment as early as 1990. If we 

 do not begin now, we will reduce the 

 natural communities along our coasts 

 to a level where their contribution to 

 our economy and general welfare will 

 be trivial. 



Marine Flora and Fauna in the Antarctic 



The environment of the antarctic 

 seas is less variable than that of 

 temperate latitudes with respect to 

 temperature and salinity, but the 

 quality of light throughout the year 

 may be quite different because of the 

 long periods of light and dark and the 



winter ice cover. In many parts of 

 the antarctic, especially near the con- 

 tinental margin, the temperature 

 of the ocean water is near 0" cen- 

 tigrade or below, and nowhere in 

 the regions known as "antarctic" — 

 that is, south of the Antarctic Con- 



vergence — are surface waters warmer 

 than 1.0° centigrade. In deeper water 

 the temperature is almost constantly 

 around —1.8° centigrade. As the 

 Canadian biologist Dunbar has 

 pointed out, a cold constant tempera- 

 ture is not a limiting factor for the 



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