STIC1DES 



struction of some alternate prey 

 species, perhaps of no economic 

 importance. This can lead to 

 resurgence. 



4. Previously secondary pests or 

 entirely innocuous species are 

 commonly unleashed; this has 

 usually been due to disturbing 

 effects on their natural enemies. 



5. Destruction of honey bees and 

 other important pollinating in- 

 sects. 



6. Hazards to the applicators 

 (many deaths and much sick- 

 ness). 



7. Hazard to crop culture on the 

 same ground (overload of per- 

 sistent pesticides in the soil, 

 etc.). 



8. Immediate hazards to man and 

 wildlife that enter the treated 

 areas. 



9. Hazards to nontarget orga- 

 nisms in places well removed 

 from the treated area. This in- 

 cludes significant influences on 

 birds like pelicans, ospreys, and 

 eagles that feed high on the 

 food chains and especially on 

 ones living around estuaries 

 where DDT, for example, is 

 concentrated; on important es- 

 tuary anthropods; on grazing 

 livestock and even man himself 

 as a result of residues on crops 

 or range or in fish, etc. DDT, 

 for example, has moved widely 

 in the biosphere — it is found in 

 sea life at the antarctic. Drain- 

 age of pesticides into lakes and 

 rivers has caused great kills of 

 fish and much public alarm. 

 The herbicide 2,4, 5-T is appar- 

 ently being withdrawn from 

 the market for fear of adverse 

 effects on man and livestock 

 during pregnancy. 



An Enlightened Technology — 

 Integrated Control 



An enlightened pest-control tech- 

 nology is one that maximizes benefit/ 



cost relationships and minimizes en- 

 vironmental degradation. The philos- 

 ophy and methodology of integrated 

 control aims to this end. 



The weather is a powerful mor- 

 tality factor for many pest species, 

 but we cannot manipulate the 

 weather. Natural enemies of pest 

 species are nature's own pest-control 

 specialists, and their use causes 

 neither outbreaks of innocuous spe- 

 cies nor environmental degradation. 

 Moreover, such species are quite 

 manipulatable. Their great impor- 

 tance in general is suggested in the 

 very fact that secondary and formerly 

 innocuous species are unleashed and 

 become serious pests when disturbing 

 pesticides are used. Why are only 2 

 of the 100 phytophagous species on 

 cotton in California found to be se- 

 rious pests? Why is our natural 

 vegetation so seldom grossly de- 

 voured by the myriad of phytopha- 

 gous species that attack it? Many 

 upsets have followed use of pesticides 

 in these situations and adverse effects 

 on natural enemies is considered the 



usual reason. Natural enemies should 



be explored in much greatt 



the enlightened new pest-control 



technology. 



In spite of the repercussions from 

 unwise use of pesticides, pesticides 

 nevertheless remain a most useful 

 tool for managing our insect pests 

 in a manner compatible with this 

 objective. Use of selective pesticides, 

 selectively used, offers our best op- 

 portunity of making maximum use 

 of natural enemies, combined with 

 cultural methods, lures, and other 

 schemes. The development of a new 

 form of "biological" pesticide — i.e., 

 hormones — offers new possibilities 

 of selective pesticides. During the time 

 we are learning to better use the resi- 

 dential natural enemies and finding 

 new and better ones for introduction, 

 or perhaps altogether new means of 

 pest control, pesticides will be espe- 

 cially needed. (See Figure X-12) We 

 do not now have adequate natural 

 enemies for all the major pests on 

 many crops (although this might 

 prove to be more nearly attainable 



The table shows the close parallel between rank order of pesticide usage in selected 

 countries and areas and rank order of agricultural yield. Note, however, that Japan 

 produces twice as much food per hectare as the United States, but uses ten times 

 the amount of pesticides. Similarly, the U.S. has over twice the African yield per 

 hectare, but uses eleven times as much pesticide. The question is whether such a 

 high ecological cost for food production is unavoidable or the result of a particular 

 agricultural system. 



351 



