1727 



into single systems global communications, transportation systems, resources, 

 environmental efifects, and weather and climate. International participation in 

 space projects is demonstrably being stimulated by the opportunities for tangible 

 benefit as well as by the prestige they afford.^*' 



There were both costs and rewards: "Leadership in large international 

 projects of technology contributes to diplomatic influence at the same 

 time that diplomatic skills are needed in the design and construction 

 «of international consortia to execute such projects." 



The study quotes the report of a Presidential task force on science 

 polic}', April 1970, that offered a virtual catalog of opportunities for 

 initiatives. These were addressed to a formula based on U:S. leadership 

 in large projects, shared efforts on mutual problems, technical assist- 

 ance where appropriate, and the building of national capabilities for 

 self-help. Excerpts from the catalog include the statements that: 



— The intrinsic nature of science results in unusual opportunities for 

 international scientific cooperation and assistance. 



- — Some technological enterprises — the space program, for example — offer 

 unusual opportunities for foreign policy and international initiative. 



— Universal human interests crossing aU international boundaries — in 

 agriculture, health, clean air and water, education, and communications — all 

 suggest similar though more diffuse opportunities. 



— . . . The Federal Government is . . . making insufficient use of our exten- 

 sive scientific and technological capabilities as instruments of foreign co- 

 operation and understanding. 



— The question of international technology transfer — the delivery and 

 application of scientific and technological knowledge, methods, and tech- 

 niques from one nation to another — is one to which the United States should 

 give very searching consideration in its formulation of a more effective science 

 policy. 



— . . . It is unlikely that indiscriminate efforts to transfer technology will 

 be effective; technology, to be useful, must be related properly to local en- 

 vironment and cultural and economic restrictions. 



— . . . Much greater emphasis must be placed on the transfer of research 

 and development capabilities, rather than of technology itself. 



— . . . An enlarged program of educational assistance in areas of science 

 and technology should be made an essential element in our foreign aid 

 program. 



(U.S. President's Task Force on Science Policy. "Science and Technology: 

 Tools for Progress." The report of the President's Task Force on Science 

 Policy. April 1970. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970, 

 page 4042.) 338 



The study addressed directly the U.S. tendency toward a reactive 

 foreign policy: 



In Riesman's book, "The Lonely Crowd," he develops a theory of a society 

 divided into persons characterized as "Inner-Directed" and "Other-Directed." 

 If nations were so categorized, in aspects of their behavior, it might be said that 

 in the field of technology the United States to a considerable degree is "Other- 

 Directed." The great efforts of the United States in science and technology — since 

 1940, at least — were inspired by external events. The Manhattan Project was 

 initiated from fear that Nazi Germany might achieve nuclear power first. Work 

 on the H-bomb was impelled by the conviction that it was necessary to beat the 

 Russians to it. The Polaris ballistic missile submarine was a response to the 

 Soviet missile threat. The whole first decade of the space race was an effort to 

 catch and pass the Soviets in an area in which they had assumed a lead. The great 

 technological programs supported by the United States are still in military, atomic, 

 and space developments, and all are motivated by events outside the United States 

 or else support for them wancs.33» 



337 Ibid., p. 661. 



^ Ibid., pp. 669-670. 



33« Ibid., pp. 676-677. 



