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The Context of the Study 



1. The /Structure of U.S. Foreign Policy Formulation 



The classical method of the conduct of international relations by the 

 United States as well as other nations was through diplomatic repre- 

 sentatives stationed in national capitals. The President was in charge 

 of the dealings with other countries, assisted primarily by the Secretary 

 and Department of State. From the beginning, however, the making of 

 foreign policy in the United States has not been a simple matter of 

 information and decisions flowing up and down a chain of command 

 within the Executive Branch. In establishing a democratic republic, 

 the drafters of the Constitution built checks and balances into the 

 system of making foreign policy as well as into other areas. Senatorial 

 approval was made a requirement for all treaties and appointments 

 of ambassadors. Congress as a whole was given several major powers 

 directly related to foreign policy, such as the power to declare war, to 

 raise and support armies and to provide and maintain a navy, and to 

 regulate foreign commerce, as well as the responsibility for making all 

 laws and appropriating funds. The people of the United States could 

 also make their voice heard through communications and elections 

 and thus were an important factor. 



As profound technological and political changes occurred in the 

 middle of the twentieth century and the United States increased its 

 participation and leadership in world affairs, the conduct of Ameri- 

 can diplomacy became far more complex. New agencies such as the 

 Central Intelligence Agency, the Arms Control and Disarmament 

 Agency, and the U.S. Information Agency, were established to cope 

 with specific problems or handle special programs in the foreign 

 affairs field. Older agencies such as the Department of Agriculture, 

 the Department of Commerce, and the defense establishment found 

 themselves increasingly involved in foreign affairs. The National 

 Security Council and other groups were formed to help advise the 

 President or to coordinate activities relating to foreign affairs spread 

 throughout the Government. 



Official contacts with foreign governments were no longer made 

 almost entirely through ambassadors and other members of the foreign 

 service. Large numbers of Americans traveled abroad in a wide 

 variety of capacities, and an increasing number of foreign visitors 

 came to the United States. Membership in numerous international 

 organizations, such as the United Nations, made multilateral diplo- 

 macy increase vastly in importance. Rapid transportation facilitated 

 meetings between chiefs of state and other high government officials, 

 and instantaneous communication made it possible for messages of 

 foreign policy importance to be carried directly between both the lead- 

 ers and the people of different nations outside of traditional diplomatic 

 channels. Diplomacy, once the narrow task of a few high officials and 

 a select few in the Foreign Service, expanded into a broad effort 

 involving a large part of the Government as a whole. 



2. Goals of American Foreign Policy 



Before taking up the question as to the place of science and tech- 

 nology in advancing the goals of American diplomacy, it may be 



