356 



appeared to be less candid. The years immediately following the IGY 

 represented " a period of acute international distress," with Soviet 

 policy becoming "confidently outgoing, aggressively assertive, and 

 dangerously risk taking." M1 As a consequence, the Soviets were pro- 

 fessing one course of action while following another. This behavior 

 was aptly described by Frutkin: 



The Russians have accepted such cooperation in principle, and have suggested 

 a cautious step-by-step procedure. But we have not yet been able to identify 

 the first step. 14 * 



Not until December 20, 1961, did "a breakthrough in the politics 

 of space cooperation" seem to take place with the adoption of the 

 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI), which 

 cleared the way for initiation of a "comprehensive program of spare 

 cooperation under the auspices ... of the United Nations." 243 

 Progress was such that by 1965 Frutkin was able to write, 



Soviet attitudes and performance, and, indeed, personal relationships with 

 their representatives, all have come a long way since the early days of the In- 

 ternational Geophysical Year. 244 



By 1973 American-Soviet relations had improved so remarkably that 

 Frutkin could comment that collaboration between members of the 

 joint working groups of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was 

 "unmatched" in their experience. 245 



Provisions of the Space Treaty, which was signed on January 27, 

 1967 and entered into force for the United States on October 10, 1967, 

 bore marked similarities to principles established earlier by the 

 Antarctic Treaty. Major provisions were as follows: 



Article 1. The exploration and use of outer space shall be for the benefit of all 



nations. There shall be access to all areas, including celestial bodies, 



for exploration and scientific investigation. 

 Article 2. Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall not 



be subject to claims of sovereignty by any nation regardless of 



use or occupation. 

 Article 3. International law shall prevail in outer space. 

 Article 4. Outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, shall be 



used for peaceful purposes. All measures of a military nature, 



including the presence of nuclear weapons in outer space, are 



prohibited. 

 Article 5. Signatories shall treat astronauts as envoys of mankind, rendering 



all possible assistance in the event of accidents or emergencies, and 



shall inform one another of all dangers to human life and health. 

 Article 6. Signatories shall bear the responsibility for their activities in outer 



space. 

 Article 7. Signatories shall bear responsibility for all damage caused by launching 



of objects into outer space. 

 Article 8. Signatories shall maintain individual ownership of all objects launched 



into outer space. 

 Article 9. Signatories shall not conduct activities in outer space which may prove 



harmful to other nations. 



341 Senate, Soviet Spaa- Programs, 1962-66, p. 427. The report goes on to state that "Khrushchev seemed 

 to be i oncerned less with cooperating in space than with mnking a concrete political reality of t tie abstract 

 Soviet claim that a shift in the balance of world i>ower against the West had occurred, and that this was 

 attributed, among ol b.er factors, to Communist superiority." 



m> Senate, Soviet .s'/>arr Programs: Organization, [etc.], p. 176. Speech to the Phi Beta Kappa alumni of 

 New York City on Mar. lfi, 1961. Frutkin was referring to Soviet cooperation during the IGY itself, stating 

 that "the Soviet voice was often raised to limit tho scope of exchange agreements" (Senate, Soviet Sjhicc 

 Programs, 1961-66, p. 443). In retrospect, however, his remarks appear more appropriate to the immediate 

 post-IGY period under discussion above. 



" ! Senate Soviet Space Programs, 1966-70, p. 399. For further detail, see: Senate, Soviet Space Programs, 

 1969 85, p. 427. 



3 " Senate, Soviet Space Programs, 1966-70, p. 462. 



>" Senate, Hearings on S. 8S0, p. 1308. 



