344 



the start of a period in which scientists assumed a greater role in 

 helping to solve international problems." 169 Atwood similarly ex- 

 pressed the belief that the IGY helped open many eyes to the signifi- 

 cance of science in world affairs. 170 Undoubtedly it helped make 

 possible further participation of scientists in "unofficial, exploratory 

 investigations of possible future diplomatic opportunities," including 

 such ventures as the Pugwash conferences. 171 Although the diplomatic 

 consequences of these international contacts are difficult to evaluate, 

 they appear to be significant. In Sullivan's view, one cannot "separate 

 the IGY from the growth of science's role in diplomacy during 1957 

 and 1958." 172 



On a largely political scale, the rocketry and outer space activities 

 of the IGY provide an excellent example of the role of a scientific 

 program in the conduct of foreign affairs. On the surface, the early 

 space activities were purely scientific endeavors, aimed at the explora- 

 tion of natural phenomena high above the earth's atmosphere. How- 

 ever, Mr. Arnold W. Frutkin, Director of Information for the USNC 

 during the IGY, has expressed the belief that the Soviet IGY space 

 program had primarily political rather than scientific objectives. 173 

 His view conforms with the widespread agreement that still appears 

 to exist in the West that "An important governing principle in the 

 Soviet system of research and development is the close interrelation- 

 ship of science, technology, and military affairs." m In keeping with 

 this view, it is maintained that 



. . . the Russians have approached space exploration not only as a strictly 

 technical matter but aa an important component of politics, both national and 

 international. For them space is only one part of a much larger political ideological 

 effort, namely, to achieve the historically determined goals of communism. 17 ' 



More recently Frutkin, speaking as Assistant Administrator for 

 International Affairs, NASA, pointed out that, particularly with 

 respect to the Apollo-Soyuz test project, Soviet cooperation with the 

 United States in peaceful activities for outer space has greatly accel- 

 erated since 1969. m This cooperation has also resulted m agreement 



. . . for the exchange of lunar samples, for exchanges of scientific results and 

 objectives for certain coordinated scientific activities, and on procedures for 

 recommending additional cooperation in space science and applications. 1 " 



This cooperation, says Frutkin, is ". . . more than a pleasant and 

 useful gesture in an era of political accommodation," but in addition 

 should "... point the way to future joint activities which should 

 help both countries gain more in space than they would from separate 

 programs." 178 



However, the Soviets are by no means unique in this respect. Al- 

 though an exact parallel cannot be drawn between Soviet and Ameri- 

 can attitudes, nonetheless, a strong relationship exists also between 

 the U.S. research and development community and the Department of 

 Defense, and Americans are not immune from exploiting their scientific 



'«« Sullivan, "The IOY," p. 259. 



"• Atwood, "The IQ Y In Retrospect," p. 689. 



m Toward A New Diplomacy, vol. I, p. 26. 



>" Sullivan, "The IOY," p. 334. 



"» Arnold W. Frutkin, "The Character of International Cooperation In Space," address before the Amer- 

 ican Rocket 8oclety during its symposium. Space Flight Report to the Nation, Oct. 9-16, 1961. See: Soviet 

 Space Programs: Organization, etc., p. 177. 



" 4 Senate, Soviet Space Programt: Organization, [etc.], p. 177. 



"» SenaU^ Soviet Space Programs, 1966-70, p. 63. 



"• U.S., Congress, Senate, Committee on AeronauUcal and 8pace Sciences, NASA Authorization for Fiscal 

 Year 1911,, Hearings on S. 880, pt. I, 93d Cong., 1st sess., Mar. 22, 1973, p. 1368. 



•" Senate, Hearings on S. 880, pp. 13fl8~1369. 



>'• Senate, Hearings on S. 880, p. 1369. 



