878 



The data base of the study consists of the following: 



(1) Congressional authorization and appropriations hearings, docu- 

 ments and reports, 1960-1970, and Congressional reports or investiga- 

 tions of particular programs; 



(2) In-house reports and published and unpublished materials 

 describing program activities, accomplishments and problems; 



(3) Data derived from interviews with agency personnel directly 

 in charge of administering separate programs; ^ and 



(4) Two types of information generated by a study of Government- 

 wide exchange programs, sponsored by the Bureau of Educational 

 and Cultural Affairs (CU) of the State Department in 1970 and 1971. 

 The resulting computer printouts give specific data on each individual 

 supported for exchange, by agency, during the fiscal years 1968 and 

 1970; and responses to a questionnaire, administered by the National 

 Bureau of Standards,^ providing descriptive information on how the 

 programs support the development of "leaders," difficulties in adminis- 

 tration, and duplication, if any, with other agency programs.^ 



The Pragmatic and Philosophical Basis of Scientific Exchange 



The history of information exchanges among scientists of different 



countries is as old as the history of science itself. Dr. Jean -Jacques 



Salomon, an observer of the sociology of science and head of the 



Science Policy Division of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation 



and Development, would attribute such exchanges, in the absence of 



conflicting national constraints, to the inherently universal nature of 



scientific inquiry : 



Science is by nature universal. The truths which scientists seek to discover 

 are not national truths; they are the same everywhere .... The structure as 

 well as the nature of science is international. Research and discoveries, whatever 

 the particular genius of individuals and peoples, constitute a common and cumu- 

 lative achievement. The growth of modern science since Galileo has been closely 

 associated with two principles which provide the foundation for all forms of 

 cooperation in this field: collaboration between specialists and the publication of 

 knowledge and discoveries.'* 



' Conducted by the author. 



2 Interview, Mr. Walter SeeUg, OfRce of Polar Programs, National Science Foundation, March 4, 1971. 



3 The International Exchange Study Data Bank, 1971. By H. E. Adams and O. G. McPherson. Prepared for 

 Office of Policy and Plans, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, Department of State by the Re- 

 search Analysis Corporation, McLean, Virginia, Draft CR, Study 230.301, April 5, 1971. 



This study was prepared for the Office of Policy and Plans, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs 

 for the President's foreign policy advisor. Its general objective according to Mr. John Richardson. Assistant 

 Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs, was: "To determine where and how [U.S. exchange 

 activities] might be improved either in the way they are managed or in. the way they are targeted so as to 

 strengthen the overall effect of these exchanges." (U.S., Congress, House, Committee on Appropriations, 

 Departments of State, Justice, Commerce, The Judiciary and Belated Agencies Appropriations for 1972: Hear- 

 ings, 92d Cong., 1st sess., Pt. 2, pp. 1013-1014.) The specific objective of the study was to obtain information 

 on how U.S. exchange programs strengthen and support the development of leaders in foreign countries. 

 (Interview with Ms. Claudia Rawles, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, 1971.) 



While the data gathered are available, the study report itself is classified. According to Mr. Norman Neu- 

 reiter, Office of Science and Technology, the study did not deal in depth, with scientific exchanges. (Inter- 

 view with Mr. Norman Neureiter, Office of Science and Technology, 1972.) The Hon. William H. Taft III, 

 Bureau of International Scientific and Technological Affairs, Department of State, reports that what little 

 treatment the report did give to scientific exchanges suggested that these could be improved to support the 

 U.S. foreign policy objective of promoting the development of foreign leaders familiar with and sympathetic 

 to U.S. national objectives. This conclusion, according to Mr. Taft, diverges from the primary objectives of 

 many scientific exchange programs— which are to promote the development of science, to promote inter- 

 national cooperation in science and technology, and to assist foreign scientists in improving their skills and 

 training to contribute better to the development of a science infrastructure in their countries. (Interview with 

 Mr. Taft, August 1971.) 



* Jean-Jacques Salomon, "The Internationale of Science, Science Studies 1 (1971), pp. 23-24." Excerpt from 

 an essay translated from Science et Politique (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1970.) 



