987 



in the United States and their counterparts in Eastern European 

 countries other than Romania are arranged on the basis of inter- 

 governmental negotiations between the agencies under the polic}' and 

 procedural guidance of the State Department. 



The following pages overview the factual, financial, and adminis- 

 trative history of exchanges . between the United States and the 

 Soviet Union and the countries of Eastern Europe. They evidence 

 the difficulties in normalizing scientific relations between political 

 adversaries, the very gradual expansion of the program, and the 

 important role played by nongoverimiental scientists in assisting 

 diplomats to overcome political obstacles. They review mutually 

 restrictive policies and their impacts on expanding the size and scope 

 of the programs. A summary section describes the qualified scientific 

 and political achievements of the programs to date. This is followed by 

 a shorter account of the still-developing scientific exchange program 

 between the United States and the Peoples Republic of China. 



THE DIFFICULTIES OF CONDUCTING RESEARCH ON A COMPLEX PROGRAM 



The complexity of the Soviet and Eastern European exchange 

 program precludes a comprehensive evaluation of scientific and 

 diplomatic interactions. Dr. Harrison Brown, Foreign Secretary 

 of NAS, whose office administers the program, reports that "It is 

 very complex; it is perhaps the most complex program that I have 

 ever had the honor of trying to supervise." ^^^ 



Our discussion in handling the . . . programs [Brown continuesl has been 

 with the National Science Foundation, which finances the program with the 

 State Department which has overall cognizance . . . because this is part of the 

 intergovernmental cultural exchange agreement, with the Department of Defense, 

 which has numerous restrictions concerning the movement of Soviet scientists 

 in the United States, ^^s 



On this point, Barghoorn notes: the difficulties of obtaining informa- 

 tion on an exchange program between two political adversaries also 

 hamper the conduct of useful research on its accomplishments and 

 limitations.^^ And he continues: "Anything approaching a full and 

 systematic description or analysis of the processes and effects of 

 U.S. -Soviet educational, scientific, artistic, and other exchanges 

 would require studies larger in scope and more precise in method 

 than any as yet undertaken. . . . ^^^ 



UNAVAILABILITY OF CONSISTENT AND RELIABLE DATA 



Evaluation is further hampered by the absence of reliable and 

 public information on annual activities. The NSP", which funds these 

 programs, is under statutor}^ obligation to report annually to the Con- 

 gress in authorization and appropriations hearings and also in annual 

 reports of grants awarded. However, the Foundation gives superficial 

 details of the Soviet and Eastern European exchanges; gross financial 



362.4 General Review of Iiifernational Cooperation in Science and Space: Hearings, op. cit., p. 160. 



353 Barghoorn, op. cit., pp. 32-33. 



3« Ibid. 



355 Barghoorn enlarges on this point: "Analysis, evaluation, orindeed even simple description of communica- 

 tions processes between the United States and the Soviet Union is likely . . . to be a . . . frustrating 

 exercise. The diftieulties confronting tlie researcher reflect the difficulties, complexities, and frustrations 

 inherent in the communications and exchange processes themselves. In dealing with the deUcate, often 

 confidential information concerning personal contacts between Americans and citizens of states such as the 

 U.S.S.R., where government tends to regard as the corr ern of the state, activities, regarded in the West as 

 maiiily pivat", discretion is reiiuired, and of course vital information is likely to be unavailable, or in vei^y 

 short supply." • '-iarghoorn, ibid., pp. 32-33.) 



