1377 



Washington or by designated scientific organizations or individuals. However, 

 until late in the nineteenth century, the American government had but few 

 substantial scientific problems or formal continuing scientific relationships with 

 other countries. The main official science activities were those occasioned by 

 participation in the work of ad hoc international commissions or by the need to 

 have delegates at international congresses. 



The lack of international scientific involvement was fortunate, for chiefs of 

 mission w^ho had scientific backgrounds or interests were few. Before 1800, it is 

 true, the American diplomatic corps had included several representatives — 

 Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Dr. Arthur Lee, John Quincy Adams, and 

 Dr. Edward Stevens — who had medical competence or general interest in science. 

 During the nineteenth century, the pioneer ecologist and etymologist George P. 

 Marsh served some twenty-five years prior to 1881 as envoy to Turkey and Italy, 

 while the chemist Henri Enri was United States consul in Basle during Grant's 

 presidency, and the physician Nathaniel Niles served in various European posts 

 from 1830 to 1850. But such men were exceptions. American diplomats then were 

 drawn conspicuously from the ranks of poets, lawyers, educators, and historians. 

 Andrew D. White was himself an historian and educator, but he also had a strong 

 appreciation of the scientific ideas and forces of his time. Now, as ambassador, he 

 acted as something of a midwife in assisting one phase of America's emerging 

 scientific internationalism.*" 



Toward the conclusion of Stiles' mission, Ambassador White wrote 

 Secretary of State John Hay that "Stiles is exceedingly valuable to 

 us." It was "absolutely necessary" that he stsy on to help look out 

 for American interests. 



One consequence of Stiles' scientific work in Germany was that 

 officials of the Department of Agriculture came to realize that "having 

 an 'agricultural attache' was highly useful to the Department." And, 

 according to this source ". . . The success of Stiles' assignment 

 ultimately led the department to designate attaches to other countries 

 and, in the 1930s, to operate its own Foreign Agricultural Service." 

 By 1975 there were 58 agricultural attaches serving in U.S. embassies 

 and a total of about 112 professional staff in the Foreign Agricultural 

 Service of the Department of Agriculture. 



Nongovernmental Scientific Attaches in World War I ^^ 



The necessity for close technical cooperation among allies in wartime 

 led in both World Wars I and II to the establishment of U.S. scientific/ 

 technological missions to European countries. During the first World 

 War, U.S. participation lasted only from April 1917 to November 

 1918. Nevertheless, three scientific missions were estabhshed — in 

 London, Paris, and Rome. Almost entirely mihtary in function and 

 scope, the program was viewed at the time of its termination as 

 something of continuing value. "The War," said the (unpublished) 

 Final Report of the Research Information Service (p. 37), "has 

 demonstrated the importance of science and of scientific research to 

 the national [securitj^l and therefore the importance of keeping in 

 touch with scientific and technical developments in other countries 

 and of promoting cooperation as well as of avoiding duplication of 

 effort." The report continued: "Surely no more effective way of ful- 

 filhng this purpose can be devised than the appointment of scientific 



»" Ibid., p. 11. Other examples of scientific diplomats, as cited in The Science Adviser of the Department of 

 State (op. cit., p. 4), were Joel R. Poinsett, the first American Minister to Mexico, Interested in military 

 science and archeology, as well as the "naturalist who introduced the poinsettia from Mexico" and Ephraim 

 George Squier, who also saw diplomatic service in Latin America, and was a distinguished archeologist. 

 More recent examples were: Dr. James B. Conant. scientist and educator and former U.S. Ambassador to 

 Germany, and Carl W. Strom, former professor of mathematics who served, as of 1960, as Ambassador to 

 Bolivia. 



8' This section is based on information from unpublished correspondence and manuscripts in the Archives 

 of the National Academy of Sciences, particularly a final report. Research Information Service, Foreign 

 Service, 1918-1919," and an interview with the late Warren Jay Vinton, a junior member of the science team 

 In Paris, on his personal recollections of this activity. 



