might be that of Prevention. The lack of suitable criteria and objective information 

 for evaluation has been reiterated and attributed to weaknesses in ecological 

 theory. '2'' The demand for useless information needs to be diminished, and 

 professional judgment, relied upon more fully. '^^ 



Professional judgments are required for interpretation of data and for decisions 

 when appropriate data are lacking. This latter process is essential in areas 

 (nonnumerical) in which the scientific method cannot be applied directly. Value 

 judgments might best be made by a qualified authority who can assess effects, as 

 determined by experts, using whatever standards might apply to the decision. '^^ An 

 example of areas not readily amenable to the rigors of science is the problem of 

 landscape appraisal. Practical solutions lie between emphasis on perception by the 

 consumer of scenic quality (Figure 4) and emphasis on quantitative or semi- 

 quantitative evaluation of measurable components of landscape deemed repre- 

 sentative of scenic quality.'" Perception of landscapes varies with time, and within 

 and between social and cultural groups. Scenic appreciation is so complex that 

 quantification may be misleading. 



The ability of educational systems to provide training and experience that are 

 adequate and learning that is appropriate for approaching the increased number of 

 problems that demand synthetic views of reality needs to be examined. Vallentyne'-^ 

 suggests that students are ill-prepared, primarily because of the institution's focus on 

 education of the individual "in isolation," and, therefore, advocates multi-disciplinary 

 joint theses. Figure 5 provides a simple illustration of predominating areas of concern 

 in ecological problems with which an applied ecologist might have to deal. Because of 

 the continuing increase in systems that are man-made, knowledge that will allow the 

 interfacing of management between man-made and natural systems is essential. '^^ 



As part of recognizing the extent of knowledge and understanding about 

 increasingly complex issues, systems of values and beliefs need to be examined. For 

 example, problems associated with dredge spoils, toxic wastes, and landfills serve 

 particularly well to illustrate what Garrett Hardin"" has termed the "tragedy of the 

 commons." He develops the concept through use of the metaphor of an open pasture. 

 Each herdsman reasons that for every animal he places in the pasture, his "positive 

 utility" is + 1 , whereas his "negative utility" (should the pasture be overgrazed) is only 

 a fraction of -1, because the effects are shared by all herdsmen. "Each man is locked 

 into a system that compels him to increase his herd without limit — in a world that is 

 limited. . . . Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all." Innumerable pollution and 

 population problems, seen in the light of the "commons," make clear the need for fish 

 and wildlife habitat protection. In the disposal of solid wastes, the commons is used 

 as a dumping ground. The clean-up of Lake Washington was accomplished by 

 diverting wastes to Puget Sound. ''^ 



CONCLUSIONS 



The need for substantial change in ethics, values, and attitudes toward the envi- 

 ronment has been voiced repeatedly. ^^'"' Environmental insults resulting in 

 alteration and/ or destruction of fish and wildlife habitat are not "new"; "2'"-' the 

 earth is far more populated now, and the rate of change has greatly accelerated. In 

 1 770, America was overwhelmingly agricultural. Before rapid resource exploitation 

 could occur, Indian land had to be distributed to the settlers, and new political, 

 economic, social, and technological arrangements, developed.^'' What's "new" is that 

 we now have the "energy and the technology to force the earth to our will rather than 

 win her consent.""'* Enhanced environmental awareness and concern have certainly 

 ameliorated some situations and set the stage for much needed work and change. 

 Nonetheless essential, they alone are not enough. 



Gunn, "5 in examining the question of extermination of species, argues that animal 

 rights, usefulness, rarity and value, and wilderness as value in itself will not provide 

 an answer to the person who cannot "see it." In a similar vein. Singer"^ reflects: 



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