Sewer Line 



Wilderness Park 



Intervention 



Engineering 





Natural/Social 

 Sciences 



Law 



Figure 5. Predominating areas of concern in ecological problems with which an ap- 

 plied ecologist might have to deal include the above disciplines. One disci- 

 pline may be more significant than others in a particular study. The over- 

 lapping area of concern is at the center of most environmental problems. '° 



'Why act morally?' cannot be given an answer that will provide everyone 

 with overwhelming reasons for acting morally. Ethically indefensible 

 behaviour is not always irrational. We will probably always need the sanc- 

 tions of the law and social pressure to provide additional reasons against 

 serious violations of ethical standards. On the other hand, those reflective 

 enough. . .are most likely to appreciate reasons offered for taking an ethical 

 point of view. 



The problem of protecting and managing fish and wildlife resources is not totally 

 economic, but rather involves ethical considerations. In this regard, the major 

 emphasis by Larson on economic evaluation as the motivation for wetland 

 regulation may not apply to all types of natural areas. Wetlands may be a special 

 case — their inherent value, economic and other, may be sufficient to command 

 public protection. Noneconomic bases for appreciation of habitat values are required 

 to prevent continued loss of natural areas. If economic considerations are such that 

 they can override the preservation of natural objects and species, the environment 

 can never be given permanent protection. '^^ Commitment to environmental value is 

 crucial. Solutions will require total assessment of values and systems of beliefs, yet 

 obligation toward the environment can be grounded in ecological principles in a way 

 that is as sound as that available to any other ethical approach. '^^ 



Many issues have not been considered here, e.g., overpopulation, energy 

 production and consumption, radiation, wilderness preservation, and man's environ- 

 ment (noise, transportation, and urban smog), but a number of threads run common 

 throughout. For instance, the search for adequate representative means whereby to 

 assess and predict effects of man-made impacts on fish and wildlife habitat needs to 

 continue. At the same time, however, recognition of the deficiencies and limitations 

 of analyses on which decisions are to be based may allow for thoughtful input from 

 trained and experienced persons. If progress in knowledge and understanding of 

 processes and systems is viewed in the light of vast areas of ignorance, minds may 

 remain open and receptive to ideas and alternatives, active and fertile in searching for 

 them. Many decisions involving a choice of either/or, with neither one being 

 acceptable, require the courage to consider a more amenable set of alternatives. The 

 deluge of environmental problems and the depth of imponderable numbers of issues 

 necessitate that goals and objectives be carefully delimited, that focus on critical 



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