gaps between institutions. Hence, we entered a new stage of implementation. We 

 wanted problems that contained immediate issues of major social, economic and 

 environmental concern, within complex institutional settings. We wished to move 

 the full range from analysis to decision. Four major projects evolved: 



Forest I Pest Management. The pulp and paper industry and employment in New 

 Brunswick, Canada had been maintained since the 1950s by an extensive insecticide 

 spraying program. The target was the spruce budworm which periodically has 

 destroyed most of the mature balsam of that province. The spraying program had 

 reduced tree mortality but at a price: incipient outbreak conditions covering larger 

 and larger areas, escalating costs, greater dependency on continued spraying, public 

 opposition, and no easy or perceived options. Some 20 government agencies have 

 some say in the matter and two key ones were at loggerheads~a federal agency 

 responsible for research and a provincial agency responsible for management— with 

 all the entwined personalities, grievances and territorial defense which that implies. "' 



Salmon Management and Enhancement . Salmon populations on the west coast 

 of Canada are 50% of their original levels with the likelihood of collapses of major 

 stocks only now being detected by public interests. Management of commercial and 

 sports Tishing faces the classic problems of mixed stocks, technology outstripping 

 regulation, conflicting pressures from commercial, sports and environmental 

 interests, divisions between research and operational agencies, and provincial, 

 federal and international conflicts. A major investmentinto salmon enhancement 

 facilities will produce more fish, with the potential of triggering the same sequence 

 seen for spruce budworm management. Increase of enhanced populations will lead to 

 increased harvest of all stocks, so that the less productive natural stocks will be driven 

 to collapse. The industry can be left precariously dependent on a few enhanced stocks 

 that are vulnerable to collapse." 



Regional Development in an Alpine Region. Obergurgl is a village in the 

 Austrian Alps. Its population of 300 is inundated each year by some 40,000 tourists. 

 Prior to 1 950 the village lived a precarious and isolated existence based on high alpine 

 farm.ing so precarious that from 1830 to 1850, the community decided to ban 

 marriages. One hundred years later came the explosions of tourism, and now 70 

 hotels with associated ski lifts and hiking trails dominate the village. The problems 

 are a microcosm of global and regional problems — erosion and environmental 

 degradation that threaten the new economic base, fear of too much demand, and of 

 too little demand, rising expectations and conflict — between haves and have-nots 

 (hoteliers and farmers), young and old. In 1975 the conflicts were deep and growing. 



Problems of a Single Mission Agency. Agencies with the single mission of 

 protecting and managing fish and wildlife often lack extensive legislative and 

 administrative powers. As a consequence, their personnel often view themselves as 

 beleaguered defenders of cherished values that are under continual and successful 

 attack. Continual erosion and destruction of those values seems inevitable. And 

 externally, they are often viewed as a reactive and reactionary organization 

 containing competing fiefdoms bound by traditions whose defense becomes more 

 important than does resource stewardship. In order to explore alternative ways for 

 such agencies to deal with their special mission in a world of many missions and 

 needs, a number of specific problems were chosen typifying such issues for the U.S. 

 Fish and Wildlife Service. They included problems of water resource allocation both 

 in theTruckee-Carson system of Nevada and in California, of animal damage control 

 in the Pacific Northwest, and of acid rain impacts on fish. Each involved fish and 

 wildlife interests, each intersected directly with other missions of other agencies, and 

 each encountered conflicts with different constituencies. 



Those four projects thus share the classic set of problems faced by most examples 

 of resource and environmental management. But they also shared one other critical 

 ingredient that determined their choice. Each had an individual within the system 



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