not pose threats to Southern Ocean populations of seals and 

 whales. However, both commercial sealing and commercial 

 whaling could be resumed in the future. In addition, developing 

 fisheries, particularly the fishery for Antarctic krill 

 ( Euphausia superba ) , and growing interest in possible mineral 

 exploration and development pose threats to seals, whales, 

 and other components of the Southern Ocean ecosystem. 



Antarctic krill is a keystone of the Southern Ocean food 

 web. It is one of the dominant herbivores and the principal 

 component in the diets of numerous species including: fin, 

 blue, humpback, and minke whales; crabeater and Antarctic fur 

 seals; Adelie, chinstrap, macaroni, and rockhopper penguins; 

 several other species of birds; and several species of fish 

 and squid. Some of these species are eaten in turn by sperm 

 whales, killer whales, leopard seals, and other higher-order 

 predators. 



Because of the possible direct and indirect effects of 

 fisheries, mineral development, and related activities on 

 marine mammals, the Marine Mammal Commission has, since 1974, 

 undertaken a continuing review of matters that might affect 

 marine mammals, krill, or other components of the Southern 

 Ocean ecosystem upon which marine mammals may depend. It has 

 made recommendations to the National Science Foundation, the 

 Department of State, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric 

 Administration, and the National Marine Fisheries Service on 

 the need for basic and directed research and monitoring programs 

 and for international agreements to effectively regulate 

 sealing, whaling, fisheries, exploration and development of 

 non-living resources, and related activities in the Southern 

 Ocean. In addition, since 1978, Marine Mammal Commission 

 representatives have served as scientific advisors on most 

 U.S. delegations to regular Antarctic Treaty Consultative 

 Meetings, special consultative meetings held to negotiate the 

 marine living resources and minerals regimes, and the annual 

 meetings of the Commission and the Scientific Committee 

 established under the Convention on the Conservation of 

 Antarctic Marine Living Resources. 



Background information and a description of Southern 

 Ocean-related activities undertaken in 1988 are provided 

 below. 



Activities Related to Antarctic Seals 



As noted above, commercial sealing in the late 18th and 

 early 19th centuries led to the near extinction of the Antarctic 

 fur seal and the southern elephant seal. The crabeater, 

 leopard, Weddell, and Ross seals, which occur primarily in 

 ice-covered areas of the Southern Ocean, were not subject to 

 commercial sealing until 1964. In that year, a private 



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