Our Liviiif; Kesounes — Mammals 



115 



and a better understanding of public attitudes 

 toward natural resources. 



References 



Halls. L.K., ed. 14X4. WhilL-lailed deer: ecology and man- 

 agement. Slackpole Books. Harrisburg. PA. 870 pp. 



Porter. W.F. 1991. While-lailed deer in eastern ecosystems: 

 implications for management and research in national 

 parks. Natural Resources Report NPS/NRSUNY/NRR- 

 91/05. National Park Service. Denver. CO. 51 pp. 



Tzilkowski. W.M.. and G.L. .Storm. 199.^. Delecting change 

 using repeated measuies analysis: while-tailed deer 

 abundance al Gettysburg National Military Park. Wildlife 

 Society Bull. 21:411-414. 



Wiggers, E.P.. and S.F. Beckerman. 199.^. Use of thermal 

 infrared sensing to survey vvhile-lailed deer populations. 



Wildlife Society Bull 



n:26.V2f)S. 



For further information: 



Gerald L. Storm 



National Biological Service 



Pennsylvania Cooperative Fish 



and Wildlife Research Unit 



University Park. PA 16802 



North American elk or wapiti (Cervus cla- 

 pluis) represent how a wildlife species can 

 recover even after heavy exploitation of popula- 

 tions and habitats aix)und the turn of the centu- 

 ry. This species is highly prized by wildlife 

 enthusiasts and by the hunting public, which 

 has provided the various state wildlife agencies 

 with ample support to restore populations to 

 previously occupied habitats and to manage 

 populations effectively. Additionally, the Rocky 

 Mountain Elk Foundation, founded in 1984. has 

 promoted habitat management, acquisition, and 

 proper hunting ethics among many segments of 

 the hunting public. 



Current population size is estimated at 

 782.500 animals for the entire elk range (Rocky 

 Mountain Elk Foundation 1989). Projections of 

 population trends for the national forests and for 

 the entire U.S. elk range are for continued 

 increases through the year 2040 (Flather and 

 Hoekstra 1989). 



This species occupies more suitable habitat 

 than at any time in the century, and populations 

 are at all-time highs (Figure). Elk populations in 

 the United States primarily occupy federally 

 managed lands, including national forests, pub- 

 lic lands, national parks, and several wildlife 

 refuges. Substantial populations occur on pii- 

 vate holdings, including large ranches and 

 reservations owned by Native Americans. 

 Populations have been introduced into 

 Michigan and Pennsylvania and recently have 

 expanded in Nevada and California. In Canada, 

 elk have increased their range into northern 

 British Columbia since 1950 and occupy crown 

 lands in Alberta. British Columbia, and 

 Manitoba. Elk populations in the mountain 

 parks of Jasper, Yoho, Kootenay, and Banff are 

 an important part of the fauna, and the popula- 

 tions in Elk Island National Park and Riding 

 Mountain National Park have been extensively 

 investigated. In Alberta and the western United 

 States, an industry centered around ranching elk 

 has proliferated in recent years. 



Perhaps the most spectacular improvement 

 in elk populations is in Califoniia. where one 

 population that originally consisted of about 

 600 individuals in the Owens Valley has now 

 grown to over 2,500 Tule elk in 22 different 



populations (Phillips 1993). Aquiring habitat 

 and reintroducing elk are the major reasons for 

 the increase. 



Problems associated with elk management 

 include the reduced life expectancies of males, 

 which in some areas are attributable to hunting. 

 This problem has been aggravated by increased 

 access to formerly inaccessible habitat, allow- 

 ing more hulls to be hunted. Additionally, elk 

 have moved into more accessible habitats that 

 provide less cover during hunting seasons. In 

 some cases, hunting has increased enough to 

 lower bull elk life expectancies even in areas 

 where access has not increased. Means to 

 address these issues include reductions in sea- 

 son lengths, quotas on bulls either through 

 hunter registration or limited-entry permit 

 hunts, closures of extensive areas to vehicle 

 access during the hunting season, and more 

 integrated management of timber harvest to 

 accommodate the needs of elk for escape cover. 



Such restrictions vary in their effectiveness, 

 depending upon numbers and distribution of 

 hunters, other human disturbances, and the 

 amount and kind of forest involved. In open 

 pine forests, for example, restricting access 

 may be less effective than in denser fir forests, 

 making other hunting regulations, such as limit- 

 ed-entry hunts, necessary. Elk occupying open 

 rangelands where conifer cover is poorly dis- 

 tributed are largely subject to limited-entry 

 hunting. Elk are sensitive to human activity 



North 

 American Elk 



by 



James M. Peek 



University of Idaho 



Figure. Distribution of elk in 

 North America as of 1978. based 

 on information provided by 

 provincial and state wildlife agen- 

 cies (modified from Thomas and 

 Toweill 1982. used with pennis- 

 sion. Wildlife Management 

 Institute). 



