116 



AUmnnals — Our Living Re\i>urces 



For further information: 



James M. Peek 



University of Idaho 



Department of Fish and Wildhfe 



Resources 



Moscow, ID 83843 



even in national paries where they are not hunt- 

 ed and may become partially conditioned to 

 human presence. Recreational, logging, graz- 

 ing, seismic, and mining activities must be 

 restricted to times and places where animals are 

 least affected. 



As elk numbers have increased in farming 

 areas, depredation on cash crops has also 

 increased. Efforts to address this issue include 

 special "depredation" hunts designed to move 

 animals away from problem areas or to reduce 

 populations, planting less palatable crops, fenc- 

 ing hay and valuable crops to prevent access by 

 elk, feeding elk, and hazing to discourage use. 

 An integrated and specially tailored approach is 

 often necessary to address this important prob- 

 lem. 



Whether the high densities of elk that occur 

 within Yellowstone National Park are perceived 

 to be a problem depends upon one's viewpoint. 

 CuiTent research on the condition of park plant 

 communities heavily used by wintering elk sug- 

 gests that factors interact to influence these 

 communities. Grasslands that have been pro- 

 tected for more than 30 years did not exhibit 

 changes in productivity when compared with 

 grazed grasslands (Coughenour 1991). On the 

 other hand, when protected stands are compared 

 with stands open to browsing, it appears that 

 woody plants may have been adversely altered 

 through prolonged heavy grazing (Chadde and 

 Kay 1991). Past actions that affected plants 

 include fire protection, concentrated grazing 

 pressure by bison [Bison hisoii) in some areas, 

 and altered grizzly bear (Ursiis circtos) feeding 

 behavior. Within Yellowstone Park, the prospec- 

 tive restoration of wolf (Canis lupus) popula- 

 tions and changes in grizzly bear populations 

 since the elimination of artifical food sources 

 will undoubtedly affect elk populations that 

 e.\ist primarily within the park. 



Natural changes in habitat across the west- 

 ern elk range have largely benefited elk. Efforts 

 to improve range conditions by modifying live- 

 stock grazing practices will provide more for- 

 age for elk, even if losses in woody plants may 

 reduce the habitat quality for deer. Better live- 

 stock management should also mean accommo- 

 dating elk habitat use by providing ungrazed 

 pastures within grazing allotments and by 



manipulating livestock grazing so plants retain 

 their palatability to elk. As livestock is managed 

 more effectively across western public lands, 

 forage plants that wildlife use will benefit, thus 

 also benefiting elk. 



On the other hand, some traditional 

 high-quality elk winter habitats, which contain 

 serai [see glossary) shrub ranges that developed 

 after large fires earlier this century, are now 

 growing into conifer stands. Some conifers like 

 Douglas tlr {Pseiidotsuga menziesii) are palat- 

 able and highly digestible for elk, and even 

 pole-size stands can provide needed cover dur- 

 ing severe winters or hunting seasons. As 

 conifers dominate a larger proportion of the 

 winter ranges and associated spring habitats, 

 however, they shade out other species and habi- 

 tat quality may deteriorate, eventually hurting 

 elk populations. These long-term changes are 

 not easily dealt with in short-term management 

 efforts. 



Nevertheless, the future of elk populations in 

 North America seems secure. Demand for hunt- 

 ing as well as the nonconsumptive values of elk 

 will ensure the success of substantial popula- 

 tions. Elk populations will benefit from 

 improved habitat conditions on arid portions of 

 the range, improved livestock management, 

 more effective integrated management of forest- 

 ed habitats, and continued implementation of 

 fire management policies in the major wilder- 

 ness areas and national parks. 



References 



Chadde. S.W,. and C.E. Kay. 1991. Tall willow communi- 

 ties on Yellowstone's northern range: a test of the "natur- 

 al regulation" paradigm. Pages 231-262 in R.B. Keiter 

 and M.S. Boyce, eds. The greater Yellowstone ecosys- 

 tem. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT. 



Coughenour, M.B. 1991. Biomass and nitrogen responses to 

 grazing of upland steppe on Yellowstone's northern win- 

 ter range. Journal of Applied Ecology 28:71-82. 



Flather. C.H.. and T.W. Hoekstra. 1989. An analysis of the 

 wildlife and fish situation in the United States: 

 1989-2040. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest 

 Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-178. 147 pp. 



Phillips. B. 1993. Good news for tules: Destanella Flat. 

 Bugle 10:21-31. 



Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. 1989. Wapiti across the 

 West. Bugle 6:138-140. 



Thomas, J.W.. and D.E. Toweill, eds. 1982. Elk of North 

 Amenca. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA. 698 pp. 



