Our Livini; Rcstmnc.'; — Human Influences 



405 



Leibovilz. L., and J. Hwang. 1968. Duck plague on the 

 American continent. Avian Diseases 12:361-378. 



Locke, L.N.. and M. Friend. 1987. Avian botulism. Pages 

 83-93 in M. Friend and C.J. Laitman, eds. Field guide to 

 wildlife diseases. Vol. 1, General field procedures and 

 diseases of migratory birds. LI.S. Fish and Wildllte 

 Service Resour. Publ. 167. 



Phillips, J.G., and F.C. Lincoln. 1930. American waterfowl. 

 Houghton Miftlin Company, Cambridge, MA. 312 pp. 



Quortrup, E.R., F.B. Queen, and L.T. Merovka. 1946. An 

 outbreak of pasteurellosis in wild ducks. Journal of the 

 American Vetennary Medical .Association 108:94-100. 



Rhoades, K.R., and R.B. Rimler 1991. Pasteurellosis. Pages 

 I4.'i-I62 in B.W. Calnek, H.J. Barnes. C.W. Beard, W.H. 

 Reid. and H.W. Yoder, Jr., eds. Diseases of poultry. 9th 

 ed. Iowa State University Press. Ames. 



Stout, 1. J., and G.W. Comwell. 1976. Nonhunting mortali- 

 ty of Hedged North American waterfowl. Journal of 

 Wildlife Mlinasement 40:681-693, 



For further information: 



Milton Friend 



National Biological Service 



National Wildlife Health Center 



6006 Schroeder Rd. 



Madison. WI .S371I 



Captive piopagation, introduL-tion. and 

 iranslocation (relocation) programs lor 

 many animals have been undertaken by federal, 

 state, and private agencies for more than 20 

 years. These programs help aid the recovery of 

 endangered and threatened species, reestablish 

 lost species, augment declining populations, 

 increase recreational opportunities, reduce nui- 

 sance species, and introduce non-native species, 

 Davidson and Nettles ( 1992) discuss transloca- 

 tion as a component of successful early restora- 

 tions of game species including wild turkey 

 (Meleagris gallopavo) and white-tailed deer 

 (Ociocoih'us virginiaiuis). and recovery of 

 endangered species such as the peregrine falcon 

 (Falco peregrimis). Despite some successes, 

 the total number of translocations that occur 

 yearly is unknown, as is the success and effects 

 of these programs, because there is rarely 

 appreciable monitoring after release (Griffith et 

 al, 1989; Gogan 1990), This report focuses on 

 trends in the use of translocation programs and 

 disease transmission following translocation of 

 wildlife vertebrates other than fish. 



In the absence of a national data base on 

 wildlife translocations, a search for publications 

 with information on translocations was per- 

 fomied by using Wildlife Review and the U,S, 

 Fish and Wildlife Reference Service CD-ROM 

 data bases for the 20-year period, 1971-91. In 

 addition, personnel from multiple federal, state, 

 and private agencies that conduct propagation 

 and translocation programs were contacted for 

 supplemental information and literature. 

 Increasing numbers of books (Neilsen and 

 Brown 1988), journals (Ullrey 1993), and meet- 

 ings (Junge 1992; Wolff and Seal 1992) discuss 

 wildlife translocations and many contain infor- 

 mation on the effects of translocations on ani- 

 mals and their environment. 



Trends 



Of 292,628 citations reviewed, 1.431 

 addressed translocations. There were relatively 

 high percentages of citations that included 

 translocation programs in the early I970"s and 

 again in the late 1980"s with a general increas- 

 ing trend overall (Fig, 1). Although the number 

 of publications probably underestimates the 



true extent of translocation programs, it does 

 demonstrate the trend of continued interest, 

 research, and publication over the past 20 years, 



Griffith et al. ( 1989) published a comprehen- 

 sive survey that estimated an average of 5 1 5 

 translocations per year (414 programs) of ter- 

 restrial vertebrates occurring in the United 

 States. Canada. New Zealand, and Australia 

 between 1973 and 1989; 98% were conducted 

 in the United States and Canada. Birds were 

 most frequently (59'7r) translocated (Fig. 2); 

 92% of the translocations involved game 

 species, 7% endangered and threatened species, 

 and 1% nongame species (Griffith et al. 1993), 

 Of the 261 translocations in the United States 

 reported by Griffith et al. (1993), wild species 

 were most frequently translocated, and the 

 Southeast had the greatest number of transloca- 

 tions (Table I ). 



In 1985 Boyer and Brown (1988) surveyed 

 the 50 state conservation agencies; 29 con- 

 firmed they were translocating mammals (56% 

 native game species, 5% nongame species, and 

 5% endangered species). In addition, 19 states 

 reported that mammals were translocated by 

 private agencies in their states. 



A 1993 follow-up to the Griffith et al. (1993) 

 survey suggests that many of the 414 programs 

 originally surveyed were still releasing animals 

 (C. Wolf, University of Wisconsin, unpublished 

 data). The average duration of these transloca- 

 tion programs was 4.8 years, an increase from 



Captive 



Propagation, 



Introduction, 



and 



Translocation 



Programs for 



Wildlife 



Vertebrates 



by 



Joshua Dein 



Kathryn Converse 



National Biological Service 



Christy Wolf 



University of Wisconsin 



Captive-reared whoopmg crane chicks released in kissimmee Praine, Flonda, 1993. 



