406 



Himum liithiences — Our Livini> Resources 



Fig. 1. Percentage of cita- 

 tions relating to transloca- 

 tions, 1971-91. Sample size 

 = 292,628. 



the 3 years estimated by Gfiffith et al. (1989). 

 Boyer and Brown ( 1988) reported that 40 states 

 projected either no change or an increase in 

 translocation activity. 



It is impossible to estimate the total number 

 of animals released throughout the United 

 States, but Maryland provides an example of an 

 ongoing and intensive propagation and release 

 program for mallard ducks to augment the nat- 

 ural population. The state released 409.838 mal- 

 lards from 1967 to 1991. An estimated 100.000- 

 150.000 ducks per year are also released in 

 Maryland by private parties onto regulated 

 shooting areas (L. Hindman, Maryland 

 Department of Natural Resources, personal 

 communication). 



Table 1. Percentages of translocations by geographic area 

 and source of translocated animals, 1973-86 (Griffith et al. 

 1993). 



.07 



.06 



.05 



^.04 



</} 



C 



1.03 

 .02 

 .01 



81 

 Year 



Disease 



Every animal represents a living micro- 

 ecosystem containing bacteria, viruses, fungi, 

 and parasites. Wildlife scientists now recognize 

 the translocation of a wild animal never repre- 

 sents movement of a single species (Davidson 

 and Nettles 1992). Unless health-monitoring 

 programs for source populations are in place, 

 the risk is greater that hazardous disease agents 

 may be moved and released into new environ- 

 ments along with the species of interest. 



'May include some wild-caughl animals 



This threat also exists in reverse, of course: 

 animals for which a significant amount of 

 money has been spent on their production may 

 be decimated by a disease agent existent at the 

 release site. Success of a whooping crane (Grits 

 americana) reintroduction program in Idaho 

 was limited by disease, and the current whoop- 

 ing crane reintroductions in Florida face similar 

 challenges. 



Williams et al. (1992) documented the 

 importance of overcoming disease problems to 

 have a successful reintroduction program. Table 

 2 summarizes other documented incidents of 

 disease introduction into new environments via 

 aniinal translocations. These diseases have sub- 

 stantial effects on wildlife, domestic animals, 

 and humans. 



Conclusions 



Data presented here show a consistent if not 

 increasing trend in the number of translocation 

 programs between 1971 and 1991. Multiple dis- 

 ease problems have been documented in ani- 

 mals moved in similar programs. We are 

 alarmed because many of these programs will 

 continue and probably increase in the future, 

 and because most programs do not monitor or 

 follow up to detect ecosystem change caused by 

 translocations. Griffith et al. (1989) found only 

 27% of the agencies that responded to their sur- 

 vey followed specific protocols for collecting 

 and recording information during transloca- 

 tions. These data indicate a need for a national 



The spread of raccoon {Procyon lotor) 

 rabies in the eastern United States is an 

 excellent example of disease transmission 

 through the movement of animals (Winkler 

 and Jenkins 1991). 



The first reported raccoon rabies 

 occurred in Florida in the early 1950's. 

 Between the 1950"s and 1977, rabies spread 

 by raccoon-to-raccoon transmission primari- 

 ly within Florida and Florida to Georgia. 



More than 3,500 raccoons were trapped 

 in Florida and transported to Virginia 

 between 1977 and 1981 to restock raccoon 

 populations and provide increased hunting 



Raccoon Rabies: 



Example of 



Translocation, Disease 



opportunities. Rabid raccoons were con- 

 firmed in shipments of animals to Virginia 

 and North Carolina from Florida. 



After these shipinents. between 1977 and 

 1994. mid- Atlantic rabies outbreaks spread 

 north to Virginia. Maryland, Pennsylvania, 

 District of Columbia. Delaware. New York. 



New Jersey, Connecticut, Massachusetts. 

 Vermont, and New Hampshire, and south to 

 North Carolina (Jenkins et al. 1988; 

 Rupprect and Smith 1995). 



Studies of rabies viruses have shown 

 great similarity between rabies virus isolates 

 from raccoons collected between 1950 and 

 1977 in Florida and Georgia and the mid- 

 Atlantic outbreaks (Winkler and Jenkins 

 1991). There is increased public health con- 

 cern about human contact with the rabid ani- 

 mals that are common in densely populated 

 urban and suburban areas. 



