Ch. 9— Maintaining Biological Diversity in the United States • 231 



tection of the most important biologically di- 

 verse lands and the early identification and 

 modification of potentially destructive devel- 

 opment plans. 



A variety of private conservation organiza- 

 tions work to protect species of particular in- 

 terest. The National Audubon Society, for ex- 

 ample, maintains some 60 refuges to protect 

 the habitat of endangered species. Many of the 

 first refuges were designated to protect marine 

 and coastal waterbird colonies (15). More re- 

 cently, sanctuaries are being acquired to pro- 

 tect inland habitats and to restrict development. 

 These areas provide refuge for an array of spe- 

 cies, in addition to the key species for which 

 the sanctuary was purchased. 



Conservation organizations such as Izaak 

 Walton League of America help maintain diver- 

 sity through an advocacy role. These groups 

 work with the U.S. Congress and Federal and 

 State agencies to develop laws and programs 

 that reflect the importance of maintaining spe- 

 cies. Like Federal programs, diversity conser- 

 vation is not a stated objective of most nonprofit 

 organizations (except TNC), but their efforts aid 

 in maintaining species and habitat diversity 

 onsite. 



Additional groups working for species pres- 

 ervation include single-species organizations 

 or foundations, such as the Carolina Bird Club, 

 Desert Fishes Council, or Trout Unlimited (47]. 

 These offices work to promote habitat protec- 

 tion for these organisms, manage habitats for 

 particular species, and advocate survival of 

 these species through Federal and State agen- 

 cies. The net result is species maintenance and 

 conservation of particular components of bio- 

 logical diversity. 



A multitude of nonprofit organizations also 

 function at the local and State level. These 

 groups tend to be small, poorly financed, and 

 focused on a particular area or species of con- 

 cern. (For further discussion, see ref. 59.) Such 

 organizations generally do not have biological 

 diversity as an exclusive objective, but they con- 

 tribute to the maintenance of biological diver- 

 sity through their achievements of preserving 

 a specific species of concern or its habitat. 



Onsite Restoration 



Another facet of maintaining biological diver- 

 sity is the restoration of degraded sites. The field 

 is relatively new, few institutions have well- 

 developed programs, and complete restoration 

 has been difficult to achieve. (See ch. 5 for dis- 

 cussion of restoration technologies.) 



A key Federal legislation that directly pro- 

 vides for revegetation after a disturbance is the 

 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act 

 of 1977, also known as SMCRA (Public Law 

 95-87). Section 515(b)(19) states that mining 

 operations shall: 



. . . establish ... a diverse, effective, permanent 

 vegetation cover of the same seasonal variety 

 native to the area of land to be affected. 



The number and composition of species is often 

 suggested by past management practices. The 

 Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Forest Serv- 

 ice, and Soil Conservation Service have each 

 developed vegetative mixtures for various types 

 of disturbances that can be economically man- 

 aged and are likely to succeed. There is a prob- 

 lem, however, with the definition of "native." 

 BLM, for instance, interprets native to include 

 introduced exotics that have been established 

 within the area before the project was assessed. 



Section 515(b)(2) states that the mine opera- 

 tion shall: 



. . . restore the land affected to a condition ca- 

 pable of supporting the use which it was capa- 

 ble of supporting prior to any mining, or higher 

 or better uses. 



Thus, SMCRA provides an incentive to develop 

 techniques for establishing nafive plant species. 

 The natural diversity aspect of SMCRA could 

 be strengthened at the State level by requiring 

 the use of native species in revegetation 

 mixtures. 



A few Federal agencies are initiating resto- 

 ration efforts. The Forest Service is mandated 

 by the National Forest Management Act of 1976 

 to replant all lands in the National Forest Sys- 

 tem that do not regenerate naturally after tim- 

 ber harvesting. Tree monocultures are most 

 likely to be planted, thus reducing diversity in- 



