262 • Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity 



proved seeds for most crops (81). In addition, 

 developing countries are not restricted from 

 using seeds protected under lUPOV. 



The extent to which private investment would 

 be encouraged by instituting PBR, given that 

 markets and infrastructures in many develop- 

 ing countries are weak and thus unattractive 

 to many private seed companies, is not clear 

 (5). Concerns also are expressed over the im- 

 pact that PBR would have on research activi- 

 ties at international agricultural research cen- 

 ters. In the final analysis, whether a country 

 decides to adopt PBR will depend on how gov- 

 ernments perceive their own best interests 

 given these and other considerations. 



Microbes are patentable (at least for specific 

 process applications] in most industrial nations. 

 The Treaty on the International Recognition 

 of Deposit of Micro-organisms for the Purposes 

 of Patent Protection (known as the Budapest 

 Treaty), however, supports a degree of inter- 

 nationalization of the microbial patenting sys- 

 tem. This treaty, established in 1977, was in- 

 stituted in part as a means to provide "enabling 

 disclosure" (as required under patent law) that 

 permits third parties to understand an inven- 

 tion and presumably build on it. It establishes 

 an agreement among participants to recognize 

 deposit of a micro-organism in another coun- 

 try as adequate for patenting purposes. The 

 Budapest Treaty also sets standards and pro- 

 cedures for such depositories (6). This system 

 has engendered much less controversy than the 

 lUPOV system, which may reflect the current 

 limited concern among developing countries 

 over microbe patenting, although this may 

 change in the future (5). 



International Quarantine Restrictions 



Plant and animal quarantine rules, actions, 

 or procedures are established by governments 

 to prevent entry of pests or pathogens in or on 

 articles imported along pathways created by 



humans. Regulated articles include plants, ani- 

 mals, propagative material (e.g., seeds, cuttings, 

 cultures, sperm, and embryos), commodities, 

 soil, packing materials, nonagricultural cargo, 

 and used vehicles and farm equipment, as well 

 as their containers and means of conveyance. 



The legal umbrella under which international 

 plant quarantine activities are covered is the 

 International Plant Protection Convention 

 (IPPC) of 1951 (known as the Rome Conven- 

 tion). The IPPC provided the international 

 model for the phytosanitary certificate that ac- 

 companies certain articles in transit (45) and 

 proposed creation of inspection services (6). 

 However, the program seems to have suffered 

 from lack of funds and attention (13,35). Since 

 the mid-1970s, FAO has explored the possibil- 

 ity of establishing a special phytosanitary cer- 

 tificate for the international transfer of germ- 

 plasm (6). 



Though no equivalent to IPPC exists for ani- 

 mals, many countries have signed bilateral 

 agreements on import health requirements of 

 animals, including the establishment of pro- 

 tocols. In general, these international treaties 

 or commissions between governments deal 

 with the movement of live animals or specific 

 animal products such as meat or semen. Re- 

 strictive requirements for commerce are gen- 

 erally under the jurisdiction of the respective 

 veterinary services because of hazards related 

 to disease prevention and control (57). 



Policies on international commerce in live 

 animals have generally been established and 

 accepted. Research has been considerable and 

 will likely continue, and relaxation of current 

 health-related constraints is anticipated. Pol- 

 icies on international shipment of animal se- 

 men are still largely based on the health status 

 of the donors. The technology of embryo trans- 

 fer is now at the point where research could 

 facilitate international transfer of animal germ- 

 plasm (57). 



INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS AND NETWORKS 



There are so many different organizations in- 

 volved in international programs to maintain 

 biological diversity, it is difficult to generalize 



about their effectiveness. Nonetheless, the 

 strengths and weaknesses of two basic catego- 

 ries of organizations— intergovernmental and 



