288 • Technologies To Maintain Biological Diversity 



Development initiatives, on the other hand, 

 are directed by economic criteria. Internal rates 

 of return and similar economic analyses, for 

 example, are important steps in justifying par- 

 ticular projects. This emphasis can be detrimen- 

 tal for biological diversity because many values 

 associated with maintaining diversity are dif- 

 ficult to measure (see ch. 2) and thus are un- 

 dervalued in development project decisions 

 (28). The standard economic approach may be 

 unable to account for the loss of biological 

 diversity, where time horizons are long, bene- 

 fits are diffuse, and losses are irreversible (37). 

 The problem is particularly acute for weakened 

 economies where overexploiting renewable re- 

 sources to meet immediate needs often under- 

 mines the chances for long-term sustainability 

 of resources. 



Lack of institutional overlap also presents 

 problems in defining common ground among 

 development and conservation interests. 

 Responsibilities for natural resources are gen- 

 erally split among agencies (e.g., agriculture, 

 forestry, and wildhfe). Despite efforts by devel- 

 oping countries to establish offices responsi- 

 ble for broader environmental issues, the agen- 

 cies are frequently unable to add conservation 

 components to development activities, let alone 

 to compete with other agencies for financial 

 or administrative support. 



Another management problem that can hin- 

 der efforts to protect a particular habitat or spe- 

 cies is the imbalance between the means 

 devoted to conservation enforcement and the 

 market value of the protected resource. The sal- 

 aries of officials assigned to enforce conserva- 

 tion measures can be extremely low compared 

 to the worth of the resources they are guard- 

 ing. Perhaps a more difficult dilemma is try- 

 ing to dissuade local populations from ex- 

 ploiting or degrading protected areas when 

 subsistence requirements and lack of alterna- 

 tives compel them to do so. 



This problem raises a central question in 

 defining the role of development assistance in 

 maintaining biological diversity. Should devel- 

 opment assistance support diversity mainte- 

 nance if such initiatives have adverse impacts 



on the people it is intended to help? Current 

 legislation (discussed later in this chapter) 

 stresses the beneficial aspects of maintaining 

 diversity in overall development. But some 

 diversity maintenance projects can conflict 

 with local development interests. For instance, 

 conflict can arise by denying access to re- 

 sources on protected lands. Wildlife conserva- 

 tion efforts in proximity to agricultural lands 

 may also threaten crops, domestic livestock, 

 and even humans (9). 



In examining the issue of possible conflicts 

 between development and diversity mainte- 

 nance, it is perhaps useful to define two ap- 

 proaches to maintaining diversity. First is the 

 symptomatic approach. This is the approach 

 typically undertaken by environmental groups 

 and is often directed at protecting a particular 

 species and its habitat. Because of the focused 

 nature of this approach, needed interventions, 

 usually involving strict protective measures, are 

 often easy to define. However, such a program 

 can be costly and difficult to implement, espe- 

 cially if initiated only after threats reach a crit- 

 ical point. Problematic from a development per- 

 spective is the case where strict protective 

 measures impinge on the interests of local pop- 

 ulations. 



Alternatively, there is a curative approach to 

 threats to diversity. This approach attempts to 

 address the root causes of the threats to diver- 

 sity. It generally involves a much broader ar- 

 ray of initiatives and is less focused on diver- 

 sity per se. It emphasizes the human element 

 of the conservation equation. 



The greatest threats to diversity in develop- 

 ing countries stems less from the impacts of 

 development than from a lack of development. 

 Addressing the root causes of threats to diver- 

 sity will therefore need to emphasize the avail- 

 ability of opportunities for individuals in de- 

 veloping countries to enhance their quality of 

 life. This is the approach generally taken by de- 

 velopment assistance agencies in their efforts 

 to elevate standards of living by creating em- 

 ployment opportunities and increasing access 

 to education, health care, and family planning. 



