29 i ox THE SOILS and sudsoils 



few years. the normal development of the "stag-headed" crown 

 again takes place. Some hold that the quality of the tiniber is 

 affected, but this is probably a mistake. This temporary evil is 

 remedied, or rather avoided, by accustoming the oaks gradually 

 to entire freedom. 



In considering the effects of various soils on the remaining 

 hardwoods, we shall not detail so fully the decomposition of the 

 different rock formations, &c., which would involve a repetition 

 of what has been said in regard to the oak and the beech. 



Ash {Fraxinus excelsior), Maple {Acer i^ilatanoid.es), Sycamore 

 (Acer j^seudojylatanns) , and Elm (Ulmus). These four trees have 

 much in common, they are found growing on similar soils, and 

 are frequently associated in subordinate mixture with beech in 

 timber forests, where the treatment accorded to them is similar, 

 and they may be classed together. A short description of their 

 specialities may, notwithstanding, precede general remarks as to 

 the nature of the most suitable soils. 



The Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) is, like the oak, a hardwood that 

 must not be reared in pure forests, as it must have a large suj^ply 

 of light, and its foliage is so thin and scattered as to be incapable 

 of preserving the moisture and mineral strength of the soil ; 

 hence it is most frequently found single, or in groups in beech 

 forests. As standards in composition forests, the ash hnds a most 

 suitable situation; freely exposed to the light, it speedily acquires 

 fair proportions ; thin in foliage it does not oppress the under- 

 growth. Even among coppice it yields a good return, if not too 

 much shaded by the standards. 



The ash is reproduced readily from the stool, and its culture 

 in coppice woods with the oak, maple, hazel (Corylus avcllana), 

 lime (Tilia europoia), sycamore, elm, hornbeam (Carjmius hetidus), 

 and beech is attended with good results. It is most liable to 

 injury from the rapid growth of grass. Dry or poor soils are not 

 suitable, it desires a moist, at times even a wet soil ; its true 

 liome is on rich, loose, strong mineral soils, abounding in humus„ 

 and even on binding ones if fertile. In mountainous districts it 

 ascends as high as the oak and the beech. On marshy soil it is 

 often found with the alder (Alniis) ; here, however, it occupies 

 moist and not absolutely wet spots, which are properly the sphere 

 of the alder. The usual sign of an unsuitable situation is the 

 gradual drying up and decay of the crown, while the trunk gives 

 forth a quantity of young shoots. 



The Maple (Acer jilatanoidcs), and the Sycamore (Acer j^scndo- 

 platanus), are varieties which must be placed above the ash in 

 regard to the amount of shade they can bear ; in fact, in some 

 parts of Holland they are found on fresh, strong, mineral soil, as 

 underwood in oak forests. But this is not their normal situation; 

 they cannot bear shade like the beech or hornbeam, and on the 



