120] The Classification of Lower Organisms 



cells of quite the character of those of certain algae. De Bary (in Hofmeister, 1866) 

 concluded that some lichens are not organisms but combinations of totally diverse 

 organisms. Presently (1868) he was convinced by the work of Schwendener, soon 

 (1868) published under his own name, ". . . dass die Flechten sammt und senders 

 keine selbststiindigen Pflanzen seien, sondern Pilze aus der Abtheilung der Ascomy- 

 ceten, denen die fraglichen Algen — deren Selbststandigkeit ich also nicht bezweifle — 

 ah Nahrpflanzen dienen." In 1879 de Bary coined the term symbiosis to designate 

 the association of different kinds of organisms. In de Bary's usage the term included 

 parasitism; in general usage, it means association to mutual advantage. The lichens 

 are a classic example of symbiosis. 



Clearly, the group of lichens is not to be maintained; the algal components are 

 known to have natural places among algae, and the inophyte components are to be 

 assigned to their natural places among Inophyta, almost all in various orders of 

 class Ascomycetes. This has already been done by Clements (1909) and Clements 

 and Shear ( 1931 ). The numerous names which students of lichens have given to them 

 are to be applied to the inophyte components. 



Another common example of symbiosis involving inophytes is furnished by at least 

 some of those which live on or in the tissues of higher plants without killing them 

 (Kelley, 1950). They occur mostly on roots. Frank (1885) coined the term mycorhiza 

 to designate the combination of roots and inophytes; it will be more convenient to 

 hold that this term designates the inophyte component of the combination. Such 

 mycorhizae as cover the growing tips of roots are helpful to their hosts by serving as 

 agents of absorption. 



Jones (1951) estimated the number of species of Inophyta as 40,000. This is 

 surely an extreme underestimate. Martin (1951) gives reason for believing the num- 

 ber to be about as great as that of flowering plants, of the order of 300,000. 



The early classifications of "fungi," as by Persoon (1801) and Fries (1821-1832), 

 were based on gross characters. They presented, along with recognizable groups 

 whose names are to be applied in order of priority, others which were mere random 

 assemblages, and whose names are to be abandoned as nomina confusa. De Bary (in 

 Hofmeister, 1866; 1884), having applied comparatively modern methods, established 

 a dozen groups (under German names). These, so far as they are retained in the 

 present phylum, have been assembled as three classes distinguished by details of the 

 sexual cycle. A fourth class, acknowledgedly artificial, is maintained for the accomo- 

 dation of the numerous and important fungi whose sexual cycles are unknown. The 

 termination -mycetes, of the names of the classes and also of various subordinate 

 groups, is the Greek ^uKr]T£q, the plural of (auKT^c;, a mold or mildew. The termi- 

 nation -mycetae which some authors have used is a solecism. 



1. Reproducing sexually, or by apomictic pro- 

 cesses clearly of sexual origin. 

 2. The zygote becoming a thick-walled 



resting cell; fruits none or inconsiderable Class 1. Zygomycetes. 



2. The zygote not becoming a thick-walled 

 resting cell; mostly producing fruits. 

 3. The zygotes giving rise, usually in- 

 directly, to sporangia called asci, 

 each typically containing eight 

 spores called ascospores Class 2. Ascomycetes. 



