lo ESSENTIALS OF BIOLOGY 



while the outer electrons are regarded as particles that revolve 

 in orbits (but their motion in orbital paths cannot be traced). 



Obviously an atom, in current physics, is a " model " — it is 

 constructed by the human mind to explain the observable, measur- 

 able variations in the field of force that *' surrounds " an atom 

 (which really is the atom). It is something that has been organized 

 rather than an organism. So also with concepts such as molecules 

 and colloidal particles. 



Thus a mob is unorganized, but when disciplined and com- 

 manded it may become a regiment of soldiers. Workers are 

 organized into trade unions and so on. 



In the organic theory of nature we deal with things that are 

 the results of organization, that have been arranged and assembled. 

 These things may not be alive (atoms, molecules, etc.) or they 

 may be alive (communities, armies, legislatures, etc.). Organisms, 

 which are things that we recognize as being alive, have this power 

 of organization or arrangement. 



And the definite parts and assemblages of parts, and motions 

 of parts that we ascribe to the atom are different in different 

 stages of our knowledge of nature because we attain greater power 

 over nature and so observe phenomena that were unknown in 

 the earlier stages. And as this control increases we explain new 

 phenomena by means of new, hypothetical models. 



Organisms we shall regard as things that are alive. Life is 

 simply recognized by us, without any doubt at all, and without 

 any necessary confusion with not-life. There may be difficulty 

 in so describing a thing which is alive because inanimate things, 

 artifacts and living things can only be scientifically described in 

 terms of space and time measurements. All have shapes, dimen- 

 sions, motions, colours, etc., and it does not seem possible, by 

 employing space-time data alone, to make absolute distinctions, 

 in verbal descriptions, between living and non-living things. 



So far, then, as it appears to be possible organisms may be 

 generally described as follows. 



a. The Characteristics of Organisms. 



i. There are categories of organisms. An individual organism 

 is an example from a category, or kind (species, sub-species, race 

 or variety) of organisms. Thus a single herring is an example 

 of the species Cliipea harengus. 



The species, or category of organisms, contains, or includes, 



