126 ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR 



But one spade differs from another one in that one is the 

 ace and another is the king — this is quahtative difference the 

 perception of which is obviously some other mental operation 

 than that which gives the perception of one ace of spades and 

 another ace of spades. 



Hi. Relation. The things having the same quantity and 

 quality may be arranged differently. Thus 13 spades may be 

 perceived in the relation — ace, king, queen, knave, 10, 9, etc. or 

 they may be perceived as ace, king, 2, queen, 3, knave, 4, 5, 6 

 ... 10. And so on. 



iv. Modality. Not having a pack of cards we may have the 

 consciousness of obtaining one — that is possibility, or we may 

 actually have the consciousness of the existence in perception of 

 the pack. But it is not necessary that we should have it, though 

 life gives us the conviction that many things are necessary. 



(Such are the elementary operators and we do not know of 

 living animals in which they do not enter into the mental 

 mechanism, in some grade of activity. The illustrations are 

 trivial ones, but the student may easily find others from ordinary, 

 essential experience.) 



446. The Acquired Operators. In human activities, and 

 to an unknown degree in the low^er animals, other operators have 

 been individually acquired, or evolved. 



i. Purpose. The mind operates with motive, intention or 

 purpose. The operation satisfies a life-urge, nutrition, reproduc- 

 tion, self- existence. The simple organism may so be active and 

 unconscious of its activity (though the latter may bring a feeling 

 or state of normality, or pleasure), but in mental life the mind 

 consciously operates with these motives of normality or pleasure. 



a. Causality. Expressed crudely there is the mental result 

 that things or events are related as effect and cause. If something 

 happens, something else that is definite in perception also happens. 

 For every particular antecedent event there is another particular 

 consequent event : Events are related in that one depends on 

 some other one. And so on. 



Functionality. In its most precise form the operator of causality 

 appears to us in the physico-mathematical relation of functionality. 

 There are two events a and b and 6 is a function of «, or 

 b = f{a). When a happens b also happens and for so much 



