468 A French Medical Legacy 



had exercised a greater influence upon medicine than any other teacher, had 

 died without either a degree or a diploma, and Paris was treated to the spec- 

 tacle of the famous Dupuytren defending the thesis which he had written for 

 his degree, and even the great Boyer himself, although nearly fifty at the time, 

 had to submit to an examination by his less illustrious colleagues and pay for 

 his diploma. The decree of 1803 also increased the length of the course in 

 medical schools to a minimum of four years, established a system of five exami- 

 nations (two of which had to be in Latin) and required the writing of a thesis 

 (either in Latin or in French). The five examinations were to be passed in the 

 following order: (1) anatomy and physiology; (2) pathology and nosology; (3) 

 materia medica, chemistry, and pharmacy; (4) hygiene and legal medicine; 

 (5) internal or external clinical practice, depending on whether the candidate 

 wished the doctorate in medicine or surgery. 



Although the three schools had originally been founded to train health 

 officers, this decree put the health officers in a separate and inferior class by 

 themselves. In preparation for their examinations they might apprentice them- 

 selves to a physician for six years, or follow hospital service for five years, or 

 spend three consecutive years in one of the medical schools. The number of 

 their examinations was limited to three: (1) anatomy; (2) elements of medi- 

 cine; (3) surgery and ordinary practices of pharmacy. 



That the student was held to the rigid system of examination is shown in 

 the old diplomas still in existence. We may take that of Francois Magendie as 

 an example, since it has been examined by the present writer in the Musee 

 Gilbert of the Paris Medical School where it was to be found, at least until 

 1939, along with other personal papers carefully preserved by Magendie. We 

 find that he passed his examinations in "anatomy and physiology" on "10 

 frimaire an XIII" (December, 1804). The date for the passing of pathology 

 and nosology is obscured by worm holes in the parchment, only the month, 

 "messidor," being decipherable. Presumably the year was 1806, since among 

 his papers is preserved a certificate exempting him from military service in 

 1805 on the grounds of "visceral obstruction," and there is no record of his 

 attendance at the hospitals during that year. This makes it probable that he 

 did not attend medical school during 1805 because of illness. Examinations 

 in materia medica, chemistry, and pharmacy were completed "26 vendemiaire 

 an XIV" (September, 1806). The date for examination in hygiene and legal 

 medicine is no longer written according to the Revolutionary calendar, but 

 reads "May 20, 1807." On February 22, 1808, he satisfied his examiners as to 

 his proficiency in "internal clinics." His thesis having been approved and his 

 fees paid, the diploma was awarded March 24, 1808. 



The final step in the evolution of the external forms of French medical 

 education was taken by Napoleon in his imperial decree of March 17, 1808, 

 which recreated the University of Paris and placed all public instruction 

 throughout the Empire under its authority. This brought the present-day 

 Paris Faculty of Medicine into existence as one of the five faculties of the 



