SOCIETAL EVOLUTION 



141 



Table I 



TYPES OF ASSOCIATIONS AND SOCIETIES 



A. Associations 



(Unstable, temporary, 

 incompletely organ- 

 ized wholes, primarily 

 dependent on environ- 

 mental stimuli) 



,, . , .fa. Homotypic 



1. Mere aggregations or agglomerations. 1 u u 



2. Breeding, feeding, hibernating, sleeping, f a. Homotypic 



lb. He) 



eterotypic 



omotypic 



eterotypic 



Heterotypic 



Societies 



(More nearly per- 

 manent, organized 

 wholes or systems, 

 primarily dependent 

 on interindividual stim- 

 uli) 



and migratory associations 



3. Predatory association. 



4. Parasitic association. 



5. Symbiotic or mutualistic association. 



6. Mimetic association. 



7. Communities (biocoenoses) 



1. Persons (multicellu- 

 ar) 



2. Mainly nutritive so- J (Colonies, corms, 

 cieties (closed) \ etc.) 



Subsocial insects 

 Social wasps 

 Social bees 

 Ants 

 Termites 



4. Mainly protective so- / Flocks, her d s , 

 cieties (closed and 1 schools, etc. 

 open) 



5. Mainly reproductive 

 mixed societies 

 (closed) 



A. Homotypic, 



Mainly reproductive' 

 societies (closed) 



R. Heterotypic 



Mainly protective 

 mixed societies (open) , 

 c. Human societies (Group societies) 



"Mixed colonies" 

 of wasps 

 Bumblebees 

 Ants 



Flocks of different 

 species of birds, 

 herds of different 

 ruminants, etc. 



The associations, of course, vary greatly in the number 

 of their component individuals, from, many milHons as in 

 the migrating swarms of locusts, to as low as two, in most 

 host and parasite associations among insects. Many species 

 often assemble to form aggregations on the same tree or 

 flower, or under the same stone, and these aggregations 

 may be either homotypic; i.e. consisting of members 

 of the same species, or heterotypic, when individuals of 

 more than one species assemble. These and other aggrega- 

 tions may also result from very important or urgent activities 

 of the individuals, such as feeding, breeding, hibernating, 

 sleeping or migrating. Comprehensive reviews of such 

 cases, with citation of the pertinent hterature, have been 

 recently pubhshed by Deegener (1918), Allee (1927) and 

 Brues (1926). Special instances of the very small associations 

 are also seen to center about nutrition in the cases of pred- 

 ators, i.e. carnivorous animals and their prey, between 

 parasites and their hosts, insects and the plants they polli- 

 nate, mimetic organisms, mainly insects, and their models 

 and in what are known as the communities, or biocoenoses, 



