18 BOOKS AND CURRENT LITERATURE 



Originally the valley meadows consisted of associations of Agrostis, 

 Phragmites and Typha, and were entirely free from conifers. Now 

 alders and willows contend for control, while occasional Scotch pines 

 obtain a foothold. 



The broad leaved or hardwood forests, whose predominant species 

 are Quercus sessilifiora and Fagus silvatica, occupy the lower slopes of 

 the mountains. Their altitudinal range is from 2300 feet to 4200 feet 

 above sea level. No well defined line divides the hardwood forest from 

 the coniferous forest. Other hardwoods — birch, cherry, alder, sorbus 

 and others are found along with some conifers mixed in with the oak 

 and beech, giving the forest a mixed aspect. Oak is more tj^pical of 

 south slopes, while beech prefers north slopes. Oak bears fertile seed 

 at 4200 feet, but where it is scattered at higher elevations it is only in 

 occasional years that fertile seeds are borne. This gives one reason 

 why the author believes the original upper limit of this hardwood forest 

 to have been higher than it is now. On north slopes spruce, (P. excelsa) 

 and fir {A. alba) compete with the hardwoods, while on the south slopes 

 Scotch pine (P. silvestris) endeavors to establish itself. Notwith- 

 standing the intrusion of these conifers the forest is essentially one of 

 hardwood species. Birch, although it makes no pure forest anywhere, 

 is widely scattered throughout the forest. The hardwood forest suffered 

 much greater change through the intrusion of man than the higher conif- 

 erous forests. Only comparatively small patches of it remain, the 

 rest being taken up by hill farms and pastures. Collectively, however, 

 there is still abundant hardwood timber of good size. 



From 4200 feet to 4700 feet the forest has the aspect of a transition 

 type, merging the hardwood belt with the subalpine coniferous forest, 

 whose upper limit in turn is given as 7000 feet. This coniferous forest 

 consists on the south exposures of more or less stunted Scotch pine and 

 mountain pine (P. montana), and on the north exposures of spruce, 

 white fir and large mountain pine, while according to the site, may be 

 found in mixture scattering specimens of birch {B. hetula), aspen 

 (P. tremula), alder {A. viridis), willows, mountain ash {S. aucaparia 

 and S. aria) and sycamore {Acer pseudoplafanus) . From 7000 feet to 

 about 7500 feet the forest gradually approaches timber line, and the 

 subalpine herbaceous flora becomes prominent. About timber line 

 and up to about 8800 feet flourish alpine grasses and ericaceous shrubs, 

 such as rhododendron and vaccinium with which are mixed some 

 juniper (J. comnnmis). 



The studies indicate that because of the advent of man and his 



