BOOKS AND CURRENT LITERATURE 19 



(loinostic aiiiinals, hardly a single forest type, except perhaps the higher 

 alpine, escaped considerable disturbance. Both tlie hoiizontal and 

 altitudinal distril)utions of species and types have been perceptil^ly 

 altered. The altitudinal limit of the sub-alpine zone is said to have 

 been lowered 800 feet, mainly because of fire and cutting. Alpine grass 

 lands have in this way l)een extendefd. Succession in this zone is inter- 

 esting. Recent clear cut areas are appropriated l)v alder (Alnus 

 viridis) wherever the site is favorable to the species. This formation 

 remains permanent if it is cut periodically or where it is strongly in- 

 fluenced by grazing. AVithout these two factors operating, the alder 

 type is simply a phase of the succession tending to bring about a new 

 forest of conifers. The various successions take place in a relatively 

 short space of time after cutting. First occurs the occupation of the 

 area by alder and scattering willows, birches, aspens, mountain ash 

 and maple, then comes a slow but steady advance of young conifers fol- 

 lowed by a disappearance of the temporary hardwood cover, and finally 

 a renewal of the original coniferous type. Within the present openings 

 on which are rhododendron and vaccinium, conifers attempt to crowd 

 in under the protection offered by the shrubs. However, if they are 

 not trampled and browsed by stock and attain size, they are cut down 

 by alpine settlers or destroyed by fires set by willful herders. 



The influence of man and cattle in changing the distribution of species 

 is impressive. It is reflected in a surprising uniformity in extended 

 spruce forests, the presence of other conifers only as admixtures and 

 the decrease of the once prominent white fir through management fav- 

 oring the more valuable spruce, although white fir possesses very strong 

 reproductive energy and is a vigorous competitor for control. Scotch 

 pine is now intermixed on the south slopes as a subordinate tree, but 

 since 1901 it has been used considerably in artificial restocking. Heavy 

 cutting combined with low temperatures have mitigated against this 

 pine in the upper valley. It attempts to invade the valley meadows, 

 but seldom wins against the competition of the alders and willows. The 

 distribution of larch (L. decidua) is now conspicuously light compared to 

 its former abundance in mixture with Pinus cembra on forest borders 

 due largely to destructive management made more serious because of 

 the tree's great intolerance of shade. Larch and Pinus cembra are 

 now being used in artificial reforestation. Until strict modern forest 

 regulation and management was instituted by the state, the forests of 

 the region were grossly mismanaged, unregulated clear cutting being 

 the rule. 



