LIAM: THE THEORY 



In this chapter, the theoretical underpinnings of LIAM are examined. 

 These theories represent a long-term attempt by social scientists to document 

 and understand the American policy process and center around five major 

 concepts: incremental i sm, decisionmaking arenas, organizational process, 

 group psychology, and bureaucratic politics. 



3.1 INCREMENTALISM 



Incremental i sm as an explanatory decisionmaking model is the result of 

 work by Herbert Simon, Charles Lindblom, and others, which attempts to explain 

 the fundamental nature of policymaking in America (Simon 1957a; Lindblom 1959, 

 1968; Braybrooke and Lindblom 1963). The incremental view holds that deci sions 

 are made serially and are pragmatic efforts to deal with problems, based on 

 past experience, as they arise within the broader decision context defined by 

 statute. Policies developed under general legal guidelines are adjusted bit 

 by bit as those involved become aware of new information, technology, or 

 preferences, or as decisionmakers are faced with new but related dilemmas. 



Simon pointed out that, given the uncertainty involved in planning and 

 policy implementation, decisionmakers tend to merely "satisfice." This term 

 refers to attempts to reach decisions that both "satisfy" the participants 

 involved (at least temporarily) and "suffice" to solve the problem for the 

 present time and under the particular situational constraints (Simon 1957a). 

 This notion was further developed by others (Lindblom 1959, 1965, 1968; 

 Wildavsky 1974, 1975). The basic idea is that given the context of an issue, 

 the legal and policy framework currently in place, and the limitations imposed 

 on decisionmakers by time, resources, and information, they generally try to 

 do the best that they can in each instance. Satisficing is contrasted to 

 another decisionmaking model, rational-comprehensive decisionmaking, which 

 Simon and others felt was the most appropriate method for making policy 

 decisions. In this second model, the ideal method for making decision choices 

 involves the following: 



(1) clarification of values and objectives prior to and distinct from 

 the scientific analysis of alternative choices; 



(2) a means-end analysis, in which the ends are isolated and the means 

 to achieve them are sought; 



(3) the best measure of a "good" policy is that it can be shown to be 

 the most appropriate means to the chosen ends; 



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