The direct and indirect ways in which plants and plant habitats in the United 

 States are threatened by human activities are summarized by Ayensu and 

 DeFilipps (1978). The following apply to coastal Maine: 



Forestry practices : clearcutting; herbicides; replacing native trees 



with exotic timber trees. 

 Biocide spraying : insecticides; herbicides. 

 Mining : peat mining; subsurface mining. 

 Real estate development and construction : roads; housing tracts; 



landclearing; power plants; shopping centers; golf courses; 



landscaping. 

 Over grazing : by domesticated or feral goats, sheep, cattle, deer, pigs, 



rabbits, with associated trampling; (this is the greatest potential 



problem on coastal islands). 

 Introduction of competitive weeds : chokers of native vegetation. 

 Fire : destructive fires; preventing natural fires. 

 Agriculture : fields cleared of vegetation for monoculture crops. 

 Water management : flooding; stream channeling; tidal power; 



hydroelectric dams; drainage of swamps. 

 Illegal removal of rare plants: from Federal, State and private land. 

 Commercial exploitation : potential for most rare plants. 

 Collecting by private individuals : for transplanting to gardens. 

 Trampling of vegetation by people: inviting accelerated soil erosion, 



and destruction of fragile ecosystems, such as bogs and fens. 



PROTECTION OF ENDANGERED, THREATENED, AND RARE PLANT SPECIES 



The Endangered Species Act of 1973 places legal restrictions on the 

 exploitation, propagation, use, and destruction of endangered and threatened 

 species (or parts derived from them) or their habitats. For example, 

 interstate and international commerce of threatened and endangered plants is 

 illegal. Federal permits are required to propagate or enhance the survival of 

 these species and for their use in scientific study. Plans for developments 

 requiring Federal approval (e.g., highways, dams, stream alteration) must 

 include consideration of endangered and threatened species. 



The Endangered Species Act also mandates the responsibility of maintaining 

 lists of plants and animals throughout the world judged by the Secretary of 

 the Interior to be in danger of extinction or likely to become so. Once a 

 plant species, subspecies, or variety is determined by the FWS to be 

 endangered or threatened its name is placed on an official list published in 

 the Federal Register . The estuary monkey flower is the only coastal Maine 

 variety whose name has appeared on this list. After a plant has been listed, 

 habitats critical to its survival must be identified and public hearings may 

 be held for discussion of its status. Critical habitats must be named within 

 one year of listing or the plant will be removed from the list. On 10 

 November 1979 all plants listed as endangered or threatened in coastal Maine 

 were removed from the official list because critical habitats were not named. 

 Any species can be relisted at any time. FWS biologists give priority to 

 complete species (rather than subspecies) and species whose taxonomic status 

 is generally agreed upon by taonomists. 



Rare plant species do not receive protection under the Endangered Species Act. 

 The locations where rare plants are found may be designated critical areas by 



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