72 THE PRINCIPLE OF THE DIRECT Chap. III. 



has not commonly led to voluntary action for its relief or 

 gratification; and when movements are excited, their 

 nature is, to a large extent, determined by those which 

 have often and voluntarily been performed for some 

 definite end under the same emotion. Great pain urges 

 all animals, and has urged them during endless genera- 

 tions, to make the most violent and diversified efforts to 

 escape from the cause of suffering. Even when a limb 

 or other separate part of the body is hurt, we often see 

 a tendency to shake it, as if to shake off the cause, 

 though this may obviously be impossible. Thus a habit 

 of exerting with the utmost force all the muscles will 

 have been established, whenever great suffering is ex- 

 perienced. As the muscles of the chest and vocal or- 

 gans are habitually used, these will be particularly liable 

 to be acted on, and loud, harsh screams or cries will 

 be uttered. But the advantage derived from outcries 

 has here probably come into play in an important man- 

 ner; for the young of most animals, when in dis- 

 tress or danger, call loudly to their parents for aid, 

 as do the members of the same community for mutual 

 aid. 



Another principle, namely, the internal conscious- 

 ness that the power or capacity of the nervous system is 

 limited, will have strengthened, though in a subordinate 

 degree, the tendency to violent action under extreme 

 suffering. A man cannot think deeply and exert his 

 utmost muscular force. As Hippocrates long ago ob- 

 served, if two pains are felt at the same time, the 

 severer one dulls the other. Martyrs, in the ecstasy of 

 their religious fervour have often, as it would appear, 

 been insensible to the most horrid tortures. Sailors 

 who are going to be flogged sometimes take a piece of 

 lead into their mouths, in order to bite it with their 

 utmost force, and thus to bear the pain. Parturient 



