Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 351 



earliest days and throughout life quite beyond our con- 

 trol; for instance, the relaxation of the arteries of the 

 skin in blushing, and the increased action of the heart 

 in anger. We may see children, only two or three years 

 old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame; 

 and the naked scalp of a very young infant reddens from 

 passion. Infants scream from pain directly after birth, 

 and all their features then assume the same form as 

 during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to 

 show that many of our most important expressions have 

 not been learnt; but it is remarkable that some, which 

 are certainly innate, require practice in the individual, 

 before they are performed in a full and perfect manner; 

 for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance 

 of most of our expressive actions explains the fact that 

 those born blind display them, as I hear from the Rev. 

 E. H. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight. 

 We can thus also understand the fact that the young and 

 the old of widely different races, both with man and 

 animals, express the same state of mind by the same 

 movements. 



We are so familiar with the fact of voun£ and old 

 animals displaying their feelings in the same manner, 

 that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is that a 

 young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress 

 its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending 

 to be savage, just like an old dog; or that a kitten should 

 arch its little back and erect its hair when frightened 

 and angry, like an old cat. When, however, we turn to 

 less common gestures in ourselves, which we are accus- 

 tomed to look at as artificial or conventional, — such as 

 shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the 

 raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers, 

 as a sign of wonder, — we feel perhaps too much surprise 

 at finding that they are innate. That these and some 



