Spiny lobster, continued 



Habitat 



Type : Spiny lobster phyllosome larvae are planktonic 

 and inhabit oceanic waters (Lyons 1986). They are 

 found in the epipelagic zone of the Caribbean Sea, Gulf 

 of Mexico, and the Straits of Florida (GMFMC 1987). 

 The postlarval swimming puerulus stage enters estua- 

 rine nursery areas. After pueruli molt into juveniles, 

 they become demersal and littoral, and utilize the 

 coastal waters of bays, lagoons, and reef flats, seeking 

 shelter associated with the substrate (Moore 1962, 

 Witham et al. 1968, Herrnkind et al. 1994). They are 

 solitary and reside in algal clumps for about 3 months 

 (Witham et al. 1 964, Andree 1 981 , Marx and Herrnkind 

 1985a, Butler and Herrnkind 1991, Butler et al. in 

 press) . These clumps provide an epif aunal food source, 

 and protection from predation and physical distur- 

 bance (Marx and Herrnkind 1985b). When they reach 

 15-16 mm CL, they begin to enter holes and crevices 

 in rocks, corals, and sponges and start associating with 

 similar-sized juveniles (Marx and Herrnkind 1985a, 

 Lyons 1986). Juveniles become gregarious at about 

 20-25 mm CL and congregate in rocky dens (Childress 

 and Herrnkind 1994, Childress and Herrnkind 1996). 

 Larger dens are occasionally shared with stone crabs, 

 spider crabs, small grouper, and other fishes (Davis 

 and Dodrill 1 989). Juveniles can use these areas for 1 5 

 months to 3 years (Lyons 1 986, Davis and Dodrill 1 989, 

 Forcucci et al. 1994). They spend this time foraging 

 and seeking dens appropriate for their increasing size 

 (Lyons 1 986). Appropriate sized dens appear to be an 

 important defense against predation (Eggleston et al. 

 1992). As juveniles become older they move from 

 inshore nursery areas to begin adult life in seaward 

 waters. Adults occur on reefs and rubble areas from 

 shore to 80 m (Moore 1 962, Eldred et al. 1 972, Williams 

 1984, NOAA 1985, Lyons 1986, Marx and Herrnkind 

 1986). 



Substrate : Adults are found among reefs, jetties, off- 

 shore oil platforms, and rubble, while young pueruli 

 and juveniles occur among seagrasses, algal beds 

 (especially the red algae Laurencia), sponges, tidal 

 channels, and holes and crevices among jetties, rocky 

 outcrops, and corals (Khandker 1964, Schomer and 

 Drew 1982, Williams 1984, NOAA 1985, Marx and 

 Herrnkind 1 985a, Davis and Dodrill 1 989, Tunnell pers. 

 comm., Hockeday pers. comm.). 



Physical/Chemical Characteristics : 

 Temperature: The spiny lobster can survive exposure 

 to 13°C, but generally inhabits areas with an annual 

 minimum temperature of at least 20°C (Marx and 

 Herrnkind 1986). Temperature tolerance may vary 

 with developmental stage, location, and salinity. Tem- 

 perature and salinity interact in their effect on postlarval 

 survival, time to metamorphosis, and size at metamor- 

 phosis (Field and Butler 1 994). Temperature has been 



found to significantly affect all measured aspects of 

 juvenile growth, including survival, intermolt period, 

 postmolt size change, feeding, and weight gain (Lellis 

 and Russell 1990). Early juveniles do not generally 

 survive below 10°C, nor above 35°C (Witham 1974, 

 GMFMC 1982). Growth of juveniles and adults is 

 optimal at 26 to 28°C, and spawning activity is related 

 to temperature. 



Salinity: In afactorial experiment, survival of postlarvae 

 to the first benthic juvenile stage was found to be 

 highest at 22°C and 35%o, and declined markedly at 

 temperatures and salinities above and below those 

 values (Field and Butler 1 994). Juveniles and adults 

 are known to occur in mesohaline to euhaline salinities 

 (5-40%o) (Witham et al. 1968, Witham 1974, GMFMC 

 1982, Lellis and Russell 1990). Older juveniles are 

 able to use marginal inshore habitats because they are 

 highly mobile and can retreat from unsuitable condi- 

 tions (Marx and Herrnkind 1986). 



Movements and Migrations : Local movements are 

 reported in response to temperature, salinity, currents, 

 wave surge, turbulence, and food availability. Adults 

 sometimes move to offshore water to mate. Males 

 return to shallower water after mating, followed by 

 females after their larvae have been released. Larvae 

 are dispersed by oceanic currents. Pueruli swim 

 shoreward at night during dark lunar phases, moving 

 from the open ocean into shallow nearshore waters, 

 and are aided in movements into nursery areas by wind 

 driven and tidal currents (Calinski and Lyons 1983, 

 Acosta et al. in press). Peak influxes occur from 

 December through April (Acosta et al. in press). Juve- 

 niles residing in algal clumps may move to different 

 clumps depending on food abundance, presence of 

 other juveniles, and the quality of shelter provided by 

 their original clump (Marx and Herrnkind 1 985b, Butler 

 et al. in press). As juveniles approach maturity, they 

 move to deeper offshore waters, traveling as much as 

 210 km in the process. Adult movement patterns are 

 not fully understood. They may occupy particular reefs 

 or dens for several years, or move many kilometers for 

 unknown reasons (Hunt et al. 1991). Offshore move- 

 ment during autumn is prompted by periods of cold 

 temperatures and possibly photoperiod. Mass migra- 

 tions during this period can involve thousands of lob- 

 sters moving in separate single-file queues of up to 50 

 individuals. Movement in this type of formation may 

 conserve energy during locomotion (Davis 1977, 

 Herrnkind 1 980, Lyons et al. 1 981 , Schomer and Drew 

 1982, NOAA 1985, Marx 1986, Marx and Herrnkind 

 1986, Davis and Dodrill 1989, Yeung and McGowan 

 1991, Lozano-Alvarez et al. 1991). 



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