unpublished). The parasite bores into 

 roots and stems of mangroves, weakening 

 them so that they may break off or fall 

 over from the stress of boat wakes or 

 wind. 



Figure 12 shows a young black man- 

 grove seedling at Port Charlotte, Flor- 

 ida, that has been attacked by Sphae- 

 roma , and Figure 13 shows Sphaeroma - 

 damaged mature red mangroves, 9 to 10m 

 (30 to 33 ft) tall, that are falling 

 into the water along the Intracoastal 

 Waterway in the northern part of Bis- 

 cayne Bay, probably from a combination 

 of boat wakes and Sphaeroma damage (Teas 

 et al. 1976). Hannan (1975) reported 

 that all his plantings of red mangroves 

 located 10 cm (4 inches) too low in the 

 tidal zone at an Indian River site were 

 killed by Sphaeroma , but that trees 

 planted above this level were not at- 

 tacked. 



DISEASES 



Olexa and Freeman (1975) reported 

 three fungus diseases of mangroves in 

 Florida. Two of them were pathogenic on 

 black mangroves and one on red man- 

 groves. The latter was identified as 

 Cylindrocarpon didymum and is thought to 

 cause the prominent galls found on red 

 mangroves in south Florida (Figure 14). 

 These authors suggest that the red man- 

 grove disease may cause mortality and 

 that the prevalence of the disease may 

 indicate that the affected mangroves are 

 stressed. The red mangrove gall disease 

 does not often affect young seedlings 

 and has not appeared in our experimental 

 plantings. The two diseases of black 

 mangroves were not reported as wide- 

 spread. It is uncertain at present 

 whether these or other diseases are 

 likely to be a problem in mangrove 

 planting. 



PUBLIC ACCESS 



At some experimental sites accessi- 

 ble to the public, there has been damage 

 to planted mangroves (Teas et al. 1975). 

 The technique of providing a sign on the 

 site that explains the purpose of the 

 experiment might reduce such losses. 

 Reimold, at this conference, demonstrat- 

 ed such a sign that was apparently suc- 

 cessful at a Spartina planting site. 



REVIEW OF MANGROVE PLANTING 

 OLDER LITERATURE 



Mangroves have been planted for 

 many years. They were planted in Sri 

 Lanka (Ceylon) to induce silt deposition 

 and in Java to stabilize the banks of 

 fish ponds and canals (Macnae 1968). 



Mangroves were introduced into Ha- 

 waii in 1905 on the island of Molokai to 

 check soil erosion (MacCaughey 1917). 

 Recently, this author (Teas et al . 1975) 

 checked several of the Hawaiian Islands 

 for mangroves and found a well-developed 

 forest of Rhizophora on the southwest 

 coast of Molokai and smaller stands on 

 several other islands. Some of the 

 Rhizophora trees on Molokai were greater 

 than 0.3 m (1 ft) in diameter and esti- 

 mated to be more than 21 m (70 ft) tall. 



Red mangroves were planted in Flor- 

 ida before 1917 among ballast stones of 

 the Florida Overseas Railway as a pro- 

 tection against storm erosion (Bowman 

 1917). Davis (1940) reported having 

 planted 4,100 red mangrove propagules at 

 Long Key in the Dry Tortugas Islands. 

 One year later approximately 80% sur- 

 vived, but 32 yr later all had died 

 and/or been washed away by storms (Teas 

 1977). 



FLORIDA PLANTINGS SINCE 1970 



Savage (1972) reported on plantings 

 of red mangrove seedlings in a variety 

 of situations in the Tampa-St. Petersburg 

 area. He had a low survival rate in most 

 cases. 



Teas et al. (1975) planted young 

 red mangrove seedlings on the east coast 

 of Florida along waterways leading into 

 the North Fork "of the St. Lucie River. 

 At the Coral Reef Waterway site, which 

 is subjected to waves from boat traffic, 

 there were no survivors after 7 mo from 

 178 seedlings planted. A low energy 

 site, Canal B-19, had good survival, and 

 a dense growth of mangroves was estab- 

 lished within 5 yr. Figure 15 shows a 

 part of this planting at 4 yr. At the 

 Elkcam Waterway, a moderate energy site, 

 seedlings were planted through a jute 

 mesh mat (Figure 16). The majority of 

 the seedlings were lost or broken, and 

 survival was low after 3 yr. However, 

 at the Elkcam Waterway site, plants on 



77 



