appears to be a direct result of a decrease in the 

 deer population, which is being stressed by 

 wolf predation, inclement weather, and the 

 decline of their habitat as cut-over forests mature 

 (Mech 197 7d, Mech and Karns 1977). 



Studies on Isle Royale, Michigan, indicated 

 that successful rearing of young is dependent on 

 ready availability of food. Two or more pups sur- 

 vived rather than the usual one in years when 

 twinning was observed in the moose population 

 (Jordan et al. 1967). 



REPRODUCTION 



Courtship lasts from a few days to months, 

 with a definite mate preference. Estrus lasts 5 to 

 7 days, with copulation occurring in February in 

 Minnesota and later further north and at higher 

 altitudes. The gestation period is 63 days; average 

 litter size is six. 



The female stays with the young for 1 to 2 

 months, while the male and other family members 

 provide food. Weaning is at 5 weeks, and sexual 

 maturity at 1 to 2 years (Medjo and Mech 1976). 



In each pack, there is usually a dominant pair; 

 the male leads attacks on prey or intruders. 

 Young that survive the first winter may disperse 

 before the next year's litter is born, but usually 

 stay until after it is born (Rutter and Pimlott 

 1968). 



An unexploited population in Ontario con- 

 tained 35% pups, 40% yearlings, and 25% adults. 

 Exploited populations in Alaska contained 42% 

 pups, 29% yearlings, and 30% adults (Mech 

 1974a). 



MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 



Cessation of wolf controls, including boun- 

 ties, and prohibition of aerial hunting have had 

 positive effects on wolf numbers in the Supe- 

 rior National Forest, Minnesota (Mech 1973). 



Several attempts have been made to rein- 

 troduce gray wolves. In 1952, four zoo animals 

 were released on Isle Royale, but they became 

 a public nuisance. In 1960, four animals were 

 released on Coronation Island, Alaska. By 1964, 

 they numbered 1 1 and had learned to prey on 

 black-tailed deer {Odocoileus hemionus colum- 

 bianus). In 1972, five laboratory animals were 

 unsuccessfully released near Umiat, Alaska 

 (Weise et al. 1975). 



In 1974, four live-trapped radio-tagged 

 Minnesota animals were released in the Upper 

 Peninsula of Michigan. All four were killed by 

 human-related causes. However, it was demon- 

 strated that wolves can be translocated. For a 

 successful reintroduction program, Weise et al. 

 (1975) recommended a strong public education 

 campaign, abatement of all coyote bounties, 

 and release of a larger number of animals. 



U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service reclassification 

 of Canis lupus (43 FR 9607, 9 Mar 1978) provides 

 Endangered status for all gray wolves south of 

 Canada, excluding Minnesota (where they are con- 

 sidered Threatened). This ruling supersedes a pre- 

 vious ruling which listed four subspecies as En- 

 dangered and was considered unsatisfactory be- 

 cause the taxonomy was outdated, wolves wander 

 outside recognized boundaries, and unlisted sub- 

 species may still occur in the lower 48 States 

 (possibly in Washington and North Dakota). Re- 

 classification of the wolf as Threatened in Minne- 

 sota was considered necessary to provide for the 

 future well-being of both the wolves and persons 

 living in areas inhabited by wolves. The ruling 

 provides for establishment of five management 

 zones in Minnesota, of which three (Zones 1, 2, 

 and 3) are considered Critical Habitat (43 FR 

 9607, 9 Mar 1978). Zone 1 is in the extreme 

 northeastern part of the State and includes parts 

 or all of Cook, Koochiching, Lake, and St. Louis 

 Counties. Zone 2 borders the southern part of 

 Zone 1 and includes parts of Lake and St. Louis 

 Counties. Zone 3 is in the north-central part of 

 the State and includes portions of Beltrami, Itasca, 

 Koochiching, Lake of the Woods, Marshall, and 

 Roseau Counties. Zones 4 and 5 comprise the 

 remainder of the State. Wolf numbers in these 

 zones will be held below biological potential (43 

 FR 9607, 9 Mar 1978). 



The Eastern Timber Wolf Recovery Team 

 (1975) outlined the three major objectives it be- 

 lieves are necessary to remove this subspecies 

 from Endangered status: 



1. Determine the status and distribution 

 of the population 



2. Insure perpetuation in its present range 



3. Reestablish populations in suitable areas 

 within the former range where viable 

 populations do not now exist. 



Other considerations include establishing mechan- 

 isms for resolving conflicts between the interests 



