tated areas or subterranean retreats for cover 

 while on land (see HABITAT.) Breeding ponds 

 have emergent or aquatic plants that provide cover 

 for both adults and larvae. Breeding ponds be- 

 come choked with vegetation soon after they fill. 



NESTING OR BEDDING 



Eggs are deposited singly, about 2 to 3 cm 

 apart, on aquatic vegetation, principally spike rush 

 (Anderson 1968). Ruth and ToUestrup (1974) 

 found some small clusters of 2 or 3 eggs and some 

 unattached eggs floating on the surface. 



RITUAL REQUIREMENTS 



Courtship behavior consists of a distinct se- 

 quence (Anderson 1961): clasping, rubbing, and 

 an elaborate walking sequence, followed by 

 spermatophore deposition by the male and subse- 

 quent recovery by the female. 



OTHER CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL 

 REQUIREMENTS 



Adults seem to have well-developed orienta- 

 tion abilities that are used to locate the breeding 

 pond. Transformed juveniles may spend 3 or 4 

 years on land before returning to the 'home' pond. 



They frequent ephemeral ponds that are free 

 of predators, especially predatory fish and the 

 introduced bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), both of 

 which are capable of seriously reducing salaman- 

 der numbers. Larval salamanders are especially 

 vulnerable to fish predation. 



Low winter rainfall occasionally results in 

 small ponds or early drying out of the ponds, so 

 that breeding is unsuccessful or the larvae die of 

 desiccation (Ruth and ToUestrup 1973). Some- 

 times several consecutive years of low rainfall 

 occur, and considerable reproductive effort may 

 be lost. 



Larval transformation usually succeeds when 

 there is more than 760 mm of rainfall per season, 

 and may succeed in years with between 635 and 

 760, depending on the timing of the rainfall; it is 

 usually unsuccesful when there is less than 635 

 mm of rain (Ruth and ToUestrup 1973). Migra- 

 tion to the breeding site occurs only on rainy 

 nights in winter. 



POPULATION NUMBERS AND TRENDS 



Once estimated to number several thousand 



just at Valencia Lagoon (Anderson 1960), the 

 salamander population has decreased because of 

 habitat disruption. In 1972, field census studies 

 estimated that about 500 adult salamanders were 

 living at this site (Ruth and ToUestrup 1973), and 

 in 1973-74 about 1,000 salamanders were estab- 

 lished here (ToUestrup 1974). In 1974, Reed 

 estimated that there were 2,720 individuals in 

 the breeding area. The higher number may be due 

 a more comprehensive study than done by early 

 workers. 



Several thousand salamanders migrated to 

 Ellicott Pond in the winter of 1971 (R. Marlow, 

 personal communication). About 4,000 were 

 marked during this period, and the total popula- 

 tion probably numbers 5,000 to 8,000 animals. 

 The other breeding sites presumably have only 

 small populations. 



The Valencia population now uses two small 

 artificial ponds for breeding. These ponds enable 

 the salamander to survive, but at a lower and 

 consequently more vulnerable level (SCLTSRT 

 1976). The Ellicott population appears to be 

 stable following habitat protective measures (see 

 MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION). 



REPRODUCTION 



Breeding occurs from November to February 

 and largely depends on mass migrations during 

 heavy rainstorms. Adults do not remain long in 

 the pond. Each female lays about 200 eggs, which 

 hatch in 30 to 45 days, and larvae transform into 

 juveniles after 90 to 145 days (Reed 1978). 



MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION 



Considerable sustained effort by many indi- 

 viduals and agencies has provided protection for 

 this salamander (Bury 1971, 1972; Bury and 

 Ruth 1972; Ruth and ToUestrup 1973; Ruth 

 1974; ToUestrup 1974; Cahfornia Department of 

 Fish and Game 1975; SCLTSRC 1976; Reed 

 1978). 



The Valencia site was partially restored by 

 CALTRANS (California Division of Highways) 

 following disruption due to construction of a 

 freeway and a drainage canal. A "salamander 

 pond" was dug and natural vegetation replanted 

 in 1970. This artifical pond is being used by the 

 adult salamanders as a breeding site, but the 

 population appears to be smaller than in times 

 past. The reduction in numbers is thought to be 



